1) Relate it to your own personal experience and provide examples of if you see it as being relevant or not in your life2) Relate to what is in the chapter – cite the page source and quote text where the videos agree or disagree with the text and how does it relate3) Find Something in Social Media (non-academic sourced material) that either supports the book and the videos or goes against the book or the material.https://www.ted.com/talks/alexander_tsiaras_concep…https://www.ted.com/talks/annie_murphy_paul_what_w…4.) In the beginning of the video Alison Gopnik states beginning at 19 seconds into the Ted Talk Video that over twenty years ago psychologist thought that a baby’s “mind was irrational, illogical, egocentric, that he couldn’t take the perspective of another person or understand cause and effect.” Thinking about just the start of her speech I immediately think back to all my days as a child care worker wondering how different it would be if I had been born some thirty years ago what would my mind think of children and would it be different because of the time that I had been set in. We are talking about baby brain growth this week – This statement above really has changed. What can you add to the board that shows how we think differently about maturation of children now compared to even 20 years ago??https://www.ted.com/talks/alison_gopnik_what_do_ba…Post a question on the Discussion Board that reflects the above To get full credit – 1) Site your source (time in video or page in book – or web site used!!) so other people can see it as well. On every question2) Ask a question that you thought of while reading the chapter3) ONCE YOU POST – Answer someone else’s question with material from the course!! This has to be done after the assignment is done. I will be sending someone else’s post to reply on.Theories of Human Development
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
2.1 Developmental Theories and the
Issues They Raise
• Learning Objectives
– Explain why theories are needed in developmental
science
– Outline the four issues addressed by theories of
human development
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Developmental Theories and the Issues
They Raise
• Theories
– Guide the collection of new facts or observations
– Make clear:
• What is most important to study
• What can be hypothesized or predicted about it
• How it should be studied
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Nature–Nurture
• Is development due to nature (biological
forces) or nurture (environmental forces)?
• Nature
– Normal children achieve same developmental
milestones at similar times due to maturational
forces
• Nurture
– Development can take many paths depending on
the individual’s experiences over a lifetime
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Activity–Passivity
• Extent to which human beings are active in
producing their own development or are
passively shaped
– Humans are curious, active creatures who
orchestrate their own development
– Humans as passive beings shaped largely by forces
beyond their control (environmental influences or
biological forces)
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Continuity–Discontinuity
• Focuses on whether the changes people
undergo over the life span are gradual or
abrupt and quantitative or qualitative
– Continuity theorists developmental changes are
gradual and quantitative
– Discontinuity theorists changes are abrupt and
qualitative
• Developmental stages
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Universality–Context Specificity
• Extent to which developmental changes are
universal or context specific
– Stage theorists believe stages are universal
– Other theorists pathways of development vary
depending on social context
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Issues in Human Development
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2.2 Freud Psychoanalytic Theory
• Learning Objectives
– Summarize the three parts of the personality and
the five psychosexual stages in Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory
– Evaluate the strengths or contributions and the
weaknesses of Freud’s theory
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Freud Psychoanalytic Theory
• Focused on the development and dynamics of
the personality
• People are driven by motives and emotional
conflicts
– Unaware of these motives and conflicts
– Shaped by their earliest experiences in the family
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Instincts and Unconscious Motivation
• Freud viewed the newborn as inherently
selfish, driven by instincts
– Inborn biological forces that motivate behavior
• Source of the mental energy that fuels human behavior
• Believed in unconscious motivation
– Power of instincts to influence our behavior
without our awareness
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Id, Ego, and Superego
• Id
– Impulsive, irrational, and selfish part of the
personality
• Ego
– Rational side of the individual that tries to find
realistic ways of gratifying the instincts
• Superego
– Individual’s internalized moral standards
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages
• Children move through five psychosexual
stages
– Oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital
• Defense mechanisms
– Devices the ego adopts unconscious coping to
defend itself against anxiety that can arise as
conflicts arise
• Repression, regression
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Strengths and Weaknesses
• Weaknesses of Freud’s theory
– Ambiguous, internally inconsistent, difficult to pin
down and test, not easily falsifiable
• Strengths
– Attention to unconscious processes underlying
human behavior
– Highlighted early experiences
– Emphasized importance of emotions
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2.3 Erikson Neo-Freudian
Psychoanalytic Theory
• Learning Objectives
– Analyze how Erikson’s neo-Freudian
psychoanalytic theory differs from and expands on
Freud’s theory
– Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
Erikson’s theory
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Erikson Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic
Theory
• Erikson as compared to Freud
– Less emphasis on sexual urges and on the
unconscious, irrational, and selfish id
– More emphasis on social influences, rational ego,
and on development after adolescence
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Psychosocial Stages
• Humans experience eight psychosocial stages
– Trust versus mistrust
– Autonomy vs shame and doubt
– Initiative vs guilt
– Industry vs inferiority
– Identity vs role confusion
– Intimacy vs isolation
– Generativity vs stagnation
– Integrity vs despair
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Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths
– Emphasis on rational, adaptive nature and on an
interaction of biological and social influences
• Weaknesses
– Vague and difficult to test
– Does not provide an adequate explanation of how
development comes about
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2.4 Learning Theories
• Learning Objectives
– Explain how the learning theory perspective on
development differs from stage theory
perspectives like Freud’s and Erikson’s
– Using examples, differentiate between Watson’s
classical conditioning, Skinner’s operant
conditioning, and Bandura’s observational
learning with regard to what learning involves and
what can be learned
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Learning Theories
• Learning Objectives
– Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of learning
theories in general and discuss how Bandura
overcame some of the weaknesses of earlier
learning theories
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Watson: Classical Conditioning
• Watson
– Conclusions about human development and
functioning should be based on observations of
overt behavior
– Rejected psychoanalytic theory
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Watson: Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning
– Form of learning in which a stimulus comes to
elicit a response through its association with a
stimulus that already elicits the response
• Fears and emotional responses can be learned
• Learning theorists
– Development is a continuous process of behavior
change
• Context specific
• Can differ from person to person
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Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Learner behaves in some way and associates
this action with the positive or negative
consequences that follow
• People repeat behaviors with desirable
consequences and decrease behaviors with
undesirable consequences
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Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement
– When a consequence strengthens a response, or
makes it more likely to occur
– Positive reinforcement
• Event that makes that behavior more probable
– Negative reinforcement
• Behavior is strengthened because something
unpleasant is removed or is avoided after the behavior
occurs
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Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Punishment
– Decreases the strength of the behavior
– Positive punishment
• Occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is the
consequence of a behavior
– Negative punishment
• Occurs when a desirable stimulus is removed following
the behavior
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Possible Consequences of Whining
Behavior
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Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Skinnerian learning theorists
– Emphasized the power of positive reinforcement
– “Catch them being good”
• Physical punishment effects
– Increase aggression
– Increase mental health problems
– Impair children’s intellectual and moral
functioning
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Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
• Social cognitive theory
– Humans are cognitive beings whose active
processing of information plays a critical role in
their learning, behavior, and development
– Observational learning
• Learning by observing the behavior of other people
• Example: The classic Bobo doll experiment
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Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
• Latent learning
– Learning occurs, but is not evident in behavior
• Vicarious reinforcement
– Learners become more or less likely to perform a
behavior based on whether consequences
experienced by the model they observe are
reinforcing or punishing
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Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
• Self-efficacy
– Belief that you can effectively produce a particular
desired outcome
• Reciprocal determinism
– Human development occurs through a continuous
reciprocal interaction among the person, behavior,
and environment
• Bandura maintains that development is
context specific, continuous, and gradual
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Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism
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Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths
– Learning theories are precise and testable
– Learning principles can be used to understand
behavior at any age
– Learning theories have important applications
• Weaknesses
– Rarely demonstrate that learning is responsible for
observed developmental changes
– Too little emphasis on biological influences
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
The Three Major Types of Learning
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2.5 Piaget Cognitive Developmental
Theory
• Learning Objectives
– Explain the concept of constructivism and the
differences in modes of thinking captured in the
four stages in Piaget’s cognitive-developmental
theory
– Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of Piaget’s
theory, noting how the sociocultural and
information-processing approaches attempted to
correct for its weaknesses
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Constructivism
• Piaget
– Intelligence is a process that helps an organism
adapt to its environment
– Children are not born with innate ideas about
reality
– Children are not filled with information by adults
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Constructivism
• Constructivism
– Children construct their own understandings of
the world based on experiences
– Curious and active explorers
– Watch what is going on around them
– Experiment on the objects they encounter
– Recognize instances where current
understandings are inadequate
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Stages of Cognitive Development
• Four major periods of cognitive development
– Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
– Preoperational stage (ages 2–7)
– Concrete operations stage (ages 7–11)
– Formal operations stage (ages 11–12 or older)
• Invariant sequence
– All children progress through the stages in the
order they are listed without skipping stages or
regressing
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Stages of Cognitive Development
• Sensorimotor stage
– Deal with the world directly through their
perceptions and actions
– Unable to use symbols to help solve problems
mentally
– Acquire tools for solving problems through their
sensory and motor experiences
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Stages of Cognitive Development
• Preoperational stage
– Developed the capacity for symbolic thought but
not yet capable of logical problem solving
– Can use words as symbols to talk about a problem
– Can mentally imagine doing something
– Egocentric thinkers
– Easily fooled by appearances
– Fail to demonstrate conservation
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Stages of Cognitive Development
• Concrete operations
– More logical than preschoolers
– Use a trial-and-error approach to problem solving
– Do well on problems that involve thinking about
concrete objects
– Can mentally categorize or mentally add and
subtract objects
– Have difficulty with abstract and hypothetical
problems
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Stages of Cognitive Development
• Formal operations
– Able to think abstractly and hypothetically
– Can define justice abstractly
– Can formulate hypotheses or predictions in their
heads
– Plan how to systematically test their ideas
experimentally
– Imagine the results of their experiments
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive
Developpment
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Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths
– Most developmentalists accept Piaget’s beliefs
– Ideas have been tested and largely supported
– Influenced education and child-rearing
• Weaknesses
– Stages are questionable
– Underestimates development of young children
– Too little emphasis on social and cultural
influences
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Other Perspectives on Cognitive
Development
• Sociocultural perspective
– Vygotsky
– Cognitive development shaped by the
sociocultural context and grows out of children’s
interactions with members of their culture
– Children are social beings
• Develop their minds through their interactions with
more knowledgeable members of their culture
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Other Perspectives on Cognitive
Development
• Information processing approach
– Human mind is like a computer
– Examines fundamental mental processes
• Attention
• Memory
• Decision making
– Development involves
• Changes in the capacity and speed of the brain
• Strategies used to process information
• Information stored in memory
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Other Perspectives on Cognitive
Development
• Information processing approach
– Development involves:
• Changes in the capacity and speed of the brain
• Strategies used to process information
• Information stored in memory
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
2.6 Systems Theories
• Learning Objectives
– Explain how systems theorists such as Uri
Bronfenbrenner have changed the way
developmentalists think about the roles of
biological and environmental forces in
development
– Define and give an example of the five
environmental systems in Bronfenbrenner’s
bioecological theory
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
2.6 Systems Theories
• Learning Objectives
– Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
Bronfenbrenner’s theory
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Systems Theories
• Systems theories
– Changes over the life span arise from ongoing
transactions in which a changing organism and a
changing environment affect one another
– Development can take several paths depending on
the complex interplay of multiple influences
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Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model
• How the environment is organized and how it
affects development
• The developing person is embedded in a
series of four environmental systems
– Microsystem
– Mesosystem
– Exosystem
– Macrosystem
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths
– Conceptualizes development as unpredictable
product of biological and environmental forces
interacting within a complex system
• Weaknesses
– Systems perspectives may never provide a
coherent picture of development (“It depends”)
– Human development may be more predictable
than bioecological model implies
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
2.7 Theories in Perspective
• Learning Objective
– Compare and contrast the major theories in this
chapter in terms of their stands on the four major
issues in human development
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Theories in Perspective
• Human development is always the product of
nature and nurture interacting
• Both humans and their environments are
active in the developmental process
• Development is both continuous and
discontinuous and has both universal aspects
and contextual aspects
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Theories in Perspective
© 2015. Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
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