Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas.You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/proposal in your own words; do not plagiarize, or do not simply copy and paste from other people’s work (e.g., samples/examples, articles).The same instructions listed on this page are also shown in this PDF: Proposal Abstract, Intro, & Method.pdf download Check out the Common Writing Issues and Questions page while you write as well as before you finalize and submit your proposal. Instructions:Title Page (see the sample proposals posted on Canvas.)Abstract (starts on a separate page) Begin with a statement or two that introduce your topic. This brief introduction should lead into your one-sentence statement of the problem, research question, or purpose of the study. Then, provide a brief description of the research method and procedure. List 3 to 5 keywords at the end of the abstract. As this is an abstract for a research proposal (typically written before data collection or analysis), use future tense when describing the method. Introduction (starts on a separate page; begins with the title of your study)Insert the title of your study on the top of the page that begins your Introduction section. Begin with a general introduction to the topic of the paper and describe the issue investigated and why this problem is important. In the first paragraph (typically at the end of the paragraph), state the purpose of the study and what you are examining (e.g., “In the present study, the researcher will examine…”). Next, review the relevant literature. You do not have to report all articles in the area. Include the ones that are directly relevant to your research topic or question(s). Your literature review should provide a rationale for your study.For this project, you need to include at least five different peer-reviewed research articles related to your topic. At least three of them must be no older than 2009 (published in 2009 or more recent). Then, provide a brief description of what you are planning to do in this study. Typically, here is where you briefly outline the method you will use for the study. Simply provide a snapshot of how the study will be conducted, so the reader is prepared for the upcoming details. Do not overwhelm your readers with too much information regarding the procedure. Save the details for your Method section.This project utilizes online survey. Therefore, briefly state that self-reported measures will be used and that data were collected via online questionnaires. Finally, state your hypotheses at the end of the Introduction section. This can be in the same paragraph as the “brief description of method” listed above.If the instructor and/or TA asked you to revise the hypotheses you wrote in your Information and Hypotheses Worksheet, include the revised version in this assignment. The page limit for the Introduction section is 1.5-2 full pages. This limit does not include the title page, Abstract, Method, References, or Appendices. See the sample proposals posted on Canvas. Method (immediately follows your Introduction section; this section does not start on a separate page)Your Method section (of a research proposal) must contains the following subsections:ParticipantsMeasuresQuestionnaire 1 (Use the name of the questionnaire as your heading)Questionnaire 2 (Use the name of the questionnaire as your heading)Demographic questionnaireProcedureData Analysis For the Participants subsection: Provide a brief description of how you will recruit the participants for this study.When the data collection is done (soon after Thursday, 6/17), the instructor will analyze the demographic information of the entire sample and send it out to the class. You will then use that information for your final research paper (not this proposal).See the sample proposals posted on Canvas and the sample method starting on page 8 of this instructions PDF download . For the Measures subsection:Based on the variables you chose, you need to include the description of the corresponding questionnaires in this subsection. For each of the questionnaires (except the demographic questionnaire): Describe what construct (i.e., self-esteem, optimism, resilience, sleep disturbance, depression, anxiety, or stress) the questionnaire aims to measure.Let the readers know how many items/questions were on the questionnaire and what kind of scale was used (e.g., 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”).Provide at least one example of the items/questions.Have in-text citation(s) for the questionnaire using APA-style.You will include the questionnaire in your appendices, so mention it in your paper (e.g., “see Appendix B for the questionnaire”).Also, provide the reliability measures. All the questionnaires used in this project have good reliability and validity. This information should be included in your proposal. I will provide you with the reliability measures (most of them were reported using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients) and the article(s) for the questionnaires.See the section “Project Variables, Questionnaires, and Reliability” below.Note that the citations and articles I have provided for the questionnaires cannot be counted toward your five peer-reviewed articles for your project proposal, unless you discuss the study (or studies) in your Introduction section. For the Demographic questionnaire:Describe what variables were included in the demographic questionnaire (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity). See the sample proposals posted on Canvas and the sample method starting on page 8 of this instructions PDF download . For the Procedure subsection: Mention the names of the questionnaires again. Let the readers know that data were collected online via Qualtrics. Include the estimated time (10-15 min) for the participants to complete the survey.See the sample proposals posted on Canvas and the sample method starting on page 8 of this instructions PDF download . For the Data Analysis subsection:Describe how you will analyze the data.For this project, you will examine the relationships using Pearson correlations and/or a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).If you picked age as the demographic variable to be examined, then all you will need is Pearson correlations.If you picked gender or smoking as the demographic variable to be examined, then you will need both a Pearson correlation and a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). See the sample proposals posted on Canvas and the sample method starting on page 8 of this instructions PDF download . References (starts on a separate page)The References section starts on a separate page. It does not immediately follow your last paragraph in the proposal; your References section should start on a new (separate) page.Provide a list of the articles you have cited in your Introduction and Method sections. Your in-text citations and references should be consistent. If a source/reference is not discussed in text (i.e., in the paper), do not cite it in the References.You must use the latest version (7th edition) of American Psychological Association (APA) style for your citations.Review the APA, APA Everywhere page on Canvas.The textbooks break down each section/element of a research proposal and paper nicely. However, keep in mind that the current edition (of both textbooks) does not have the latest APA style updates. Therefore, when it comes to formatting your paper and citations, use the information in the APA, APA Everywhere page on Canvas.You can also use the Purdue OWL website to help you check your citations:https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_author_authors.html (Links to an external site.)https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_author_authors.html (Links to an external site.) For this project, you need to include at least five different peer-reviewed research articles related to your topic. At least three of them must be no older than 2009 (published in 2009 or more recent).Reminder: the citations and articles I have provided for the questionnaires cannot be counted toward your five peer-reviewed articles for your project proposal, unless you discuss the study (or studies) in your Introduction section Appendices Include the questionnaires used to measure the variables you chose and the demographic questionnaire.You can copy them from the Project Questionnaires download word document or the files that can be downloaded in the “Project Variables, Questionnaires, and Reliability” section below. Start each appendix on a separate page.Label the Appendices before the title of the questionnaire (i.e., Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C).See the sample proposals posted on Canvas and the sample method on pages 8-13 of this instructions PDF download . Required Format and Style As this is a research proposal (which is typically written before data collection or analysis), use future tense when describing the method.You can use the sample proposals and other examples to guide you. However, you should write your study/proposal in your own words; do NOT plagiarize, or do NOT simply copy and paste from other people’s work (e.g., samples/examples, articles).Your proposal must be typed, double-spaced with 1-inch margins and typed using 12-point Times New Roman font.All articles/references that you include in your proposal must be properly cited (both in text and in the References section) using the latest version (7th edition) of APA style.The page limit for the Introduction section is 1.5-2 full pages. This limit does not include he title page, Abstract, Method, References, or Appendices.There is no page limit for the Method section; however, be comprehensive yet concise.Use complete sentences and check your grammar, punctuation, spelling, and word usage.Instead of look at or see, use conduct, examine, study, assess, observe, measure, count, etc.Use because or as instead of since. Use since only when referring to time (meaning “after”).Limit the use of while to its temporal meaning (i.e., events that occur simultaneously). Consider using although, even though, whereas, etc.Points will be deducted if your paper does not adhere to the required format/style. Submit Your Proposal Save your proposal file regularly. When you are done, upload your saved word document (.doc or .docx) here on Canvas. The document you submit must be one of these file types: docx or doc.Please make sure that the file you upload is the final draft. Only one submission is allowed, so you may not revise the document again after you upload and submit the proposal.This assignment must be completed and submitted individually as indicated in the course syllabus. Let the instructor know if you have any questions or concerns about this assignment.Project Variables, Questionnaires, and ReliabilitySelf-esteem:Questionnaire: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale download (RSES; Rosenberg, 1989). It is also on page 1 of the Project Questionnaires word doc.Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha ranges from .88 to .90 (Gray-Little, Williams, & Hancock, 1997 download ; Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001 download ).Citations:Gray-Little, B., Williams, V. L., & Hancock, T. D. (1997). An item response theory analysis of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(5), 443-451. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297235001Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(2), 151-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272002Rosenberg, M. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image (rev. ed.). Wesleyan University Press. Optimism:Questionnaire: Revised Life Orientation Test download (LOT-R; Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). It is also on page 2 of the Project Questionnaires word doc.Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha ranges from .78 to .84 (Crewell et al., 2005 download ; Scheier et al., 1994 download ).Citations:Creswell, J. D., Welch, W. T., Taylor, S. E., Sherman, D. K., Gruenewald, T. L., & Mann, T. (2005). Affirmation of Personal Values Buffers Neuroendocrine and Psychological Stress Responses. Psychological Science, 16(11), 846-851. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01624.xScheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 1063-1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063 Resilience (ability to recover from stress):Questionnaire: Brief Resilience Scale download (BRS; Smith et al., 2008). It is also on page 3 of the Project Questionnaires word doc.Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha ranges from .80 to .91 (Breslow et al., 2015 download ; Smith et al., 2008 download ).Citations:Breslow, A. S., Brewster, M. E., Velez, B. L., Wong, S., Geiger, E., & Soderstrom, B. (2015). Resilience and collective action: Exploring buffers against minority stress for transgender individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(3), 253-265. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000117Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The Brief Resilience Scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972 Sleep Disturbance:Questionnaire: Sleep Disturbance Short Form 8b download (SD-8b; PROMIS, 2016). It is also on page 4 of the Project Questionnaires word doc.Reliability: Measured using the ratio between the true score and observed score; this reliability ratio for SD-8b is .90 (Yu et al., 2011 download ).Citations:PROMIS (2016, May 3). PROMIS short form v1.0 – Sleep Disturbance 8b. Retrieved from http://www.healthmeasures.net/explore-measurement-systems/promisYu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., . . . Pilkonis, P. A. (2011). Development of short forms from the PROMIS sleep disturbance and sleep-related impairment item banks. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 10(1), 6-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2012.636266 Depression, Anxiety, and Stress:Questionnaire: These three variables are subscales of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 download (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). It is also on pages 5-6 of the Project Questionnaires word doc.Reliability (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995 download ):Depression: Cronbach’s alpha = .91Anxiety: Cronbach’s alpha =.81Distress: Cronbach’s alpha =.89Citation:Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-U Demographic Questionnaire (Smoking Status, Age, Gender, and Ethnicity):A basic demographic questionnaire was used to collect information on participants’ smoking status, age, gender, and ethnicity. It is on page 7 of the Project Questionnaires word doc.You don’t need to report the reliability for the demographic questionnaire.
Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas.You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/pro
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree At times I think I am no good at all. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree I feel that I have a number of good qualities. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree I am able to do things as well as most other people. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree I feel I do not have much to be proud of. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree I certainly feel useless at times. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree I wish I could have more respect for myself. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree I take a positive attitude toward myself. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree Source: Rosenberg (1989) Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) Using the scale below as a guide, indicate how much you agree with each statement below. Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree _________ 1. In uncertain times, I usually expect the best. _________ 2. It’s easy for me to relax. _________ 3. If something can go wrong for me it will. _________ 4. I am always optimistic about my future. _________ 5. I enjoy my friends a lot. _________ 6. It’s important for me to keep busy. _________ 7. I hardly ever expect things to go my way. _________ 8. I don’t get upset too easily. _________ 9. I rarely count on good things happening to me. _________ 10. Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad. Source: Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, (1994) Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) Please indicate the extent to which you agree with each of the following statements by using the following scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree. Please respond to each item by marking one number per row. Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times I have a hard time making it through stressful events It does not take me long to recover from a stressful event It is hard for me to snap back when something bad happens I usually come through difficult times with little trouble I tend to take a long time to get over set-backs in my life Source: Smith et al. (2008) Sleep Disturbance – Short Form 8b (SD-8b) Please respond to each item by marking one box per row. In the past 7 days… Not at all A little bit Somewhat Quite a bit Very much My sleep was restless I was satisfied with my sleep My sleep was refreshing I had difficulty falling asleep In the past 7 days… Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always I had trouble staying asleep I had trouble sleeping I got enough sleep In the past 7 days… Very Poor Poor Fair Good Very good My sleep quality was Source: PROMIS (2016) Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) Please read each statement and circle a number 0, 1, 2 or 3 that indicates how much the statement apply to you in general. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any statement. The rating scale is as follows: 0 Did not apply to me at all 1 Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time 2 Applied to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of time 3 Applied to me very much, or most of the time 1. I found it hard to wind down 0 1 2 3 2. I was aware of dryness of my mouth 0 1 2 3 3. I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all 0 1 2 3 4. I experienced breathing difficulty (e.g., excessively rapid breathing,breathlessness in the absence of physical exertion) 0 1 2 3 5. I found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things 0 1 2 3 6. I tended to over-react to situations 0 1 2 3 7. I experienced trembling (e.g., in the hands) 0 1 2 3 8. I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy 0 1 2 3 9. I was worried about situations in which I might panic and makea fool of myself 0 1 2 3 10. I felt that I had nothing to look forward to 0 1 2 3 11. I found myself getting agitated 0 1 2 3 12. I found it difficult to relax 0 1 2 3 13. I felt down-hearted and blue 0 1 2 3 14. I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on withwhat I was doing 0 1 2 3 15. I felt I was close to panic 0 1 2 3 16. I was unable to become enthusiastic about anything 0 1 2 3 17. I felt I wasn’t worth much as a person 0 1 2 3 18. I felt that I was rather touchy 0 1 2 3 19. I was aware of the action of my heart in the absence of physicalexertion (e.g., sense of heart rate increase, heart missing a beat) 0 1 2 3 20. I felt scared without any good reason 0 1 2 3 21. I felt that life was meaningless 0 1 2 3 Source: Lovibond & Lovibond (1995) Demographic Questionnaire Below are a series of demographic questions. Please answer them as accurately as you can. Be assured that information provided is confidential. Do you smoke? (If you smoke, please indicate how many cigarettes you smoke per day) □ Yes: _____________ □ No What is your age (years old)? __________ Gender (please select one): □ Male □ Female □ Other: __________ What is your ethnicity? □ White/Caucasian (non-Hispanic) □ Black/African American □ Hispanic/Latino(a) □ Asian/Pacific Islanders □ Native American □ Biracial/Multiracial: ____________________________ □ Other: ____________________________ Page 9 of 7
Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas.You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/pro
Sleep Disturbance – Short Form 8b (SD-8b) Please respond to each item by marking one box per row. In the past 7 days… Not at all A little bit Somewhat Quite a bit Very much My sleep was restless I was satisfied with my sleep My sleep was refreshing I had difficulty falling asleep In the past 7 days… Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always I had trouble staying asleep I had trouble sleeping I got enough sleep In the past 7 days… Very Poor Poor Fair Good Very good My sleep quality was Source: PROMIS (2016)
Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas.You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/pro
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) Please read each statement and circle a number 0, 1, 2 or 3 that indicates how much the statement apply to you in general. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any statement. The rating scale is as follows: 0 Did not apply to me at all 1 Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time 2 Applied to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of time 3 Applied to me very much, or most of the time 1. I found it hard to wind down 0 1 2 3 2. I was aware of dryness of my mouth 0 1 2 3 3. I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all 0 1 2 3 4. I experienced breathing difficulty (e.g., excessively rapid breathing,breathlessness in the absence of physical exertion) 0 1 2 3 5. I found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things 0 1 2 3 6. I tended to over-react to situations 0 1 2 3 7. I experienced trembling (e.g., in the hands) 0 1 2 3 8. I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy 0 1 2 3 9. I was worried about situations in which I might panic and makea fool of myself 0 1 2 3 10. I felt that I had nothing to look forward to 0 1 2 3 11. I found myself getting agitated 0 1 2 3 12. I found it difficult to relax 0 1 2 3 13. I felt down-hearted and blue 0 1 2 3 14. I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on withwhat I was doing 0 1 2 3 15. I felt I was close to panic 0 1 2 3 16. I was unable to become enthusiastic about anything 0 1 2 3 17. I felt I wasn’t worth much as a person 0 1 2 3 18. I felt that I was rather touchy 0 1 2 3 19. I was aware of the action of my heart in the absence of physicalexertion (e.g., sense of heart rate increase, heart missing a beat) 0 1 2 3 20. I felt scared without any good reason 0 1 2 3 21. I felt that life was meaningless 0 1 2 3 Source: Lovibond & Lovibond (1995)
Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas.You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/pro
PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 1 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Research Proposal : Abs tract, Introduction, and Method Grade Points: 40 points Due Date: Tuesday, 6/22/2021 , 11:59 PM Preparation: The assigned readings for Week 2 are meant to help you write this research proposal and the final research paper . I recommend reviewing the following chapters/sections /page if you need: o Chapter 16.3 of the Gravetter & Forzano (GF) textbook o Chapter 3.2 -3.5 of the Mitchell, Jolley, & O’Shea (MJO) textb ook o APA, APA Everywhere page on Canvas Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas. o You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/proposal in your own words ; do not plagiarize, or do not simply copy and paste from other people’s work (e.g., samples /examples, articles). Check out the Common Writing Issues and Questions page on Canvas while you write as well as before you finalize and submit your pro posal. Instruction s: Title Page (see the sample proposal s posted on Canvas .) Abstract (starts on a separate page) Begin with a statement or two that introduce your topic. This brief introduction should lead into your one -sentence statement of the problem, research question, or purpose of the study. Then , provide a brief description of the research method and procedure. List 3 to 5 keywords at the end of the abstract. As this is an abstract for a research proposal (typically written before data collection or analysis ), use future tense when describing the method. Introduction (starts on a separate page ; begins with the title of your study ) Insert the title of your st udy on the top of the page that begins your Introduction section. Begin with a general introduction to the topic of the paper and describe the issue investigated and why this problem is important. In the first paragraph (typically at the end of the parag raph), state the purpose of the study and what you are examining (e.g., “In th e present study, the researcher will examine…”). PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 2 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Next, review the relevant literature. You do not have to report all articles in the area. Include the ones that are directly relevant to your res earch topic or question(s). Your literature review should provide a rationale for your study. For this project , you need to include at least five different peer -reviewed research articles related to your topic . At least three of them must be no older than 200 9 (published in 200 9 or more recent). Then, p rovide a brief description of what you are planning to do in this study . Typically, here is where you b riefly outline the method you will use for the study. Simply provide a snapshot of how the study will be conducted , so the reader is prepared for the upcoming details. Do not overwhelm your readers with too much information regarding the procedure. Save the details for your Method section. This project utilizes online survey. Therefore, briefly state that self -reported measures will be used and that data were collected via online questionnaires. Finally, state your hypotheses at the end of the Introduction section. This can be in the same paragraph as the “brief description of method” listed above. If the instructor asked you to revise the hypotheses you wrote in your Info rmation and Hypotheses Works heet , include the revised version in this assignment. The page limit for the Introduction section is 1.5 -2 full pages . This limit does not include the title page, Abstract, Method , References, or Appendices . See the sample proposals posted on Canvas. M ethod (immediately follow s your Introduction section; this section does not start on a separate page ) Your Method section (of a research proposal) must contains the following subsections: Participants Measures o Questionnaire 1 (Use the name of the questionnaire as your heading) o Questionnaire 2 (Use the name of the questionnaire as your heading) o Demographic questionnaire Procedure Data Analysis For the Participants sub section: Provide a b rief description of how you will recruit the participants for this study. When the data collection is done (soon after Thursday, 6/17 ), the instructor will analyze the demographic information of the entire sample and send it out to the class. You will then use that information for your final research paper (not this proposal) . PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 3 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. For the Measures subsection: Based on the variables you chose, y ou need to include the description of the corresponding questionnaires in this subsection. For each of the questionnaires (except the demographic questionnaire): o Describe what construct (i.e., self -esteem, optimism, resilience, sleep disturbance, depression, anxiety, or stress) the questionnaire aims to measure. o Let the readers know how many items/questions were on the questionnaire and what kind of scale was used (e.g., 4 -point Likert -type scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”). o Provide at least one example of the items/questions. o Have in -text citation(s) for the questionnaire using APA -style. o You will include the questionnaire in your appen dices, so mention it in your paper (e.g., “see Appendix B for the questionnaire”). o Also, provide the reliability measures. All the questionnaires used in this project have good reliability and validity. This information should be included in your proposal . I will provide you with the reliability measures (most of them were reported using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients) and the article(s) for the questionnaires. See the section “ Project Variables, Questionnaires, and Reliability ” on pages 6-7 of this instru ction. Note that t he citations and articles I ha ve provided for the questionnaires cannot be counted toward your five peer -reviewed articles for your project proposal , unless you discuss the study (or studies) in your Introduction section. For the Demog raphic questionnaire: o Describe what variables were included in the demographic questionnaire (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity). For the Procedure subsection: Mention the names of the questionnaires again. Let the readers know that data were collected online via Qualtrics. Include the estimated time (10 -15 min) for the participants to complete the survey. For the Data Analysis subsection: Describe how you will analyze the data. For this project, you will examine the relationships using Pearson correlations and/or a one -way analysis of variance (ANOVA). o If you picked age as the demographic variable to be examined, then all you will need is Pearson correlations. o If you picked gender or smoking as the demographic variable to be examined, then you will n eed both a Pea rson correlation and a one -way analysis of variance (ANOVA) . See the sample proposals posted on Canvas and the sample method starting on page 8 of this file. PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 4 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. References (starts on a separate page) The References section starts on a separate page. It does not immediately follow your last paragraph in the proposal; your References section should start on a new (separate) page. Provide a list of the articles you have cited in your Introduction and Method sections. Your in – text citations and references should be consistent. If a source/reference is not discussed in text (i.e., in the paper), do not cite it in the References. You must use the latest version (7 th edition) of American Psychological Association (APA) style for your c itations . Review the APA, APA Everywhere page on Canvas. The textbooks break down each section/ element of a research proposal and paper nicely. However, keep in mind that the current edition (of both textbooks) does not have the latest APA style updates. Therefore, when it comes to formatting your paper and citations, use the information in the APA, APA Everywhere page on Canvas. You can also use the Purdue OWL website to help you check your citations: o https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_an d_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_ style_guide/in_text_citations_author_authors.html o https://owl.purdue.edu/ow l/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_ style_guide/reference_list_author_authors.html For this project , you need to include at least five different peer -reviewed research articles related to your topic . At least three of them must be no olde r than 200 9 (published in 200 9 or more recent). Reminder: t he citations and articles I ha ve provided for the questionnaires cannot be counted toward your five peer -reviewed articles for your project proposal , unless you discuss the study (or studies) in your Introduction section . Appendices Include the questionnaires used to measure the variables you chose and the demographic questionnaire. You can copy them from the Project Questionnaires word document posted on Canvas. Start each appendix on a sepa rate page. Label the Appendices before the title of the questionnaire (i.e., Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C). See the sample proposals posted on Canvas and the sample method on pages 8-13 of this file . PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 5 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Required Format and Style As this is a research proposal (which is typically written before data collection or analysis), use future tense when describing the method . You can use the sample proposals and other examples to guide you. However, you should write your study/proposal in your own words ; do NOT plagiarize, or do NOT simply copy and paste from other people’s work (e.g., samples/examples, articles). Your proposal must be typed, double -spaced with 1 -inch margins and typed using 12 -point Times New Roman font. Do not submit a hand -written version. All articles/references that you include in your proposal must be properly cited (both in text and in the References section) using the latest version (7 th edition) of APA style . The page limit for the Introduction section is 1.5 -2 full pages . This limit does not include the title page, Abstract, Method, References, or Appendices . There is no page limit for the Method section; however, be comprehensive yet concise. Use complete sentences and check your grammar , punctuation, spelling, and word usage. Instead of look at or see , use conduct , examine , study , assess , observe , measure , count , etc. Use because or as instead of since . Use since only when referring to time (meaning “after”). Limit the use of while to its temporal meaning (i.e., events that occur simultaneously). Consider using although , even though , whereas , etc . Points will be deducted if your paper does not adhere to the required format /style. Submit Your Proposal Save your proposal file regularly. When you are done, upload your saved word document (.doc or .docx) to Research Proposal under the Assignments tab on Canvas. The document you submit must be one of these file types: docx or doc. Please make sure that the file you upload is the final dra ft. Only one submission is allowed, so you may not revise the document again after you upload and submit the proposal . This assignment must be completed and submitted individually as indicated in the course syllabus. Let the instructor know if you have any questions or concerns about this assignment. PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 6 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Project Variables, Questionnaires , and Reliability Self -esteem: Questionnaire: Rosenberg Self -Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1989). See page 1 of the Project Questionnaire s word doc ument posted on Canvas . Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha ranges from .88 to .90 (Gray -Little, Williams, & Hancock, 1997; Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001). Citations: o Gray -Little, B., Williams, V. L., & Hancock, T. D. (1997). An item response theory analysis of the Rosenberg Self -Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 23 (5), 443 -451. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0146167297235001 o Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M ., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self – esteem: Construct validation of a single -item measure and the Rosenberg Self -Esteem Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 27 (2), 151 -161. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0146167201272002 o Rosenberg , M. (1989). Society and the adolescent self -image (rev. ed.) . Wesleyan University Press. Optimism: Questionnaire: Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT -R; Scheier, Carver, & Bridges , 1994 ). See page 2 of the Project Questionnaire s word document posted on Canvas . Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha ranges from .78 to .84 (Crewell et al., 2005; Scheier et al., 1994) . Citations: o Creswell, J. D., Welch, W. T., Taylor, S. E., Sherman, D. K., Gruenewald, T. L., & Mann, T. (2005). Affirmation of Personal Values Buffer s Neuroendocrine and Psychological Stress Responses. Psychological Science , 16 (11), 846 -851. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1467 -9280.2005.01624.x o Scheier , M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self -mastery, and self -esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 67 (6), 1063 -1078. https ://doi.org/ 10.1037/0022 -3514.67.6.1063 Resilience (ability to recover from stress): Questionnaire: Brief Resilience Scale ( BRS; Smith et al., 2008 ). See page 3 of the Project Questionnaire s word document posted on Canvas . Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha ranges from .80 to .91 (Breslow et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2008). Citations: o Breslow, A. S., Brewster, M. E., Velez, B. L., Wong, S., Geiger, E., & Soderstrom, B. (2015). Resilience and collective action: Exploring buffers against minority stress for tran sgender individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity , 2(3), 253 -265. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/sgd0000117 o Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley , E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The Brief Resilience Scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 15 (3), 194 -200. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10705500802222972 PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 7 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Sleep Disturbance: Questionnaire: Sleep Disturbance Short Form 8b (SD -8b; PROMIS, 2016). See page 4 of the Project Questionnaire s word document posted on Canvas . Reliability: Measured using the ratio between the true score and observed score; this reliability ratio for SD -8b is .90 (Yu et al., 2011). Citations: o PROMIS. (2016, May 3). PROMIS short form v1.0 – Sleep Disturbance 8b . Retrieved from http://www.healthmeasures.net/explore -measurement -systems/promis o Yu, L., Buysse, D. J., Germain, A., Moul, D. E., Stover, A., Dodds, N. E., . . . Pilkonis, P. A. (2011). Development of short forms from the PROMIS™ sleep disturbance and sleep – related impairment item banks. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 10 (1), 6 -24. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15402002.2012.636266 Depression, Anxiety, and Stress: Questionnaire: These three variables are subscales of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale -21 (DASS -21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995 ). See page s 5 -6 of the Project Questionnaire s word document posted on Canvas . Reliability ( Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995 ): o Depression : Cronbach’s alpha = . 91 o Anxiety : Cronbach’s alpha =.81 o Distress : Cronbach’s alpha =.89 Citation: o Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond , S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy , 33 (3), 335 -343. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/0005 -7967(94)000 75 -U Demographic Questionnaire (Age, Gender, and Smoking Status): A basic demographic questionnaire was used to collect information on participants’ smoking status, age, gender, and ethnicity . See page 7 of the Project Questionnaire s word document posted on Canvas . You don’t need to report the reliability for the demographic questionnaire. Note: the above questionnaires and corresponding articles can be found on Canvas. Sample Method, References, and Appendices are shown below, on pages 8-13 of this instructions file. PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 8 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Method Participants Data will be collected via Qualtrics. The researcher will recruit prospective participants online and send them an anonymous survey link to the questionnaires. Measures Positive and Negative Affect Schedules. Positive affect will be assessed using t he Positive and Negative Affect Schedules (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988; Appendix A). The PANAS consists of 10 positive (e.g., “interested,” “enthusiastic”) and 10 negative (e.g., “distressed,” “ashamed”) it ems rated on a 5 -point Likert -type scale , ranging from “not at all” to “extremely.” The PANAS has been validated and has a high reliability with the Cronbach’s α ranging from .84 to .90 (Watson et al., 1988). How I See Myself. The How I See Myself questionnaire (HSM; Tayler & Gollwitzer, 1995; Appendix B) is a 22 -item questionnaire that measures self -enhancement. The questionnaire contains 11 positive qualities (e.g., “cheerful,” “sensitive to others”) and 11 negative qualities (e.g., “cranky,” “lacking motivation”). Participants will be asked to rate themselves on a 7 -point Likert -type scale in comparison to other s. The scale ranges from “much worse” to “much better” than the average college students of the participants’ age an d gender. The HSM is valid and reliable with the Cronbach’s α ranging from .83 to .91 (Cre swell et al., 2005; Taylor et al., 2008; Tayler & Gollwitzer, 1995; Taylor, Lerner, Sherman, Sage, & McDowell, 2003; Thomsen, Sidanius, & Fiske, 2007). Demographic questionnaire. A demographic questionnaire (Appendix C) will be administered to collect participants’ basic demographic information, including age, gender, and ethnicity . Procedure All the questionnaires (PANAS, HSM, and demographic questionnaire) will be administered online using Qualtrics. The present study is a part of a larger research study that consists of six online questionnaires. It will take participants approximately 10 to 15 min to complete the whole survey. Data Analysis PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 9 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. A Pearson correlation will be conducted to examine the relationship between positive affect and self -enhancement. Furthermore, the researcher will assess the potential gender differences in positive affect and self -enhancement using a one -way analysis of variance (A NOVA). PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 10 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. References Creswell, J. D., Welch, W. T., Taylor, S. E., Sherman, D. K., Gruenewald, T. L., & Mann, T. (2005). Affirmation of Personal Values Buffers Neuroendocrine and Psychological Stress Responses. Psychological Science , 16 (11), 846 -851. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1467 -9280.2005.01624.x Taylor, S. E., Burklund, L. J., Eisenberger, N. I., Lehman, B. J., Hilmert, C. J., & Lieberman, M. D. (2008). Neural bases of moderation of cortisol stress responses by psychosocial resources. Journal of Per sonality and Social Psychology , 95 (1), 197 -211. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0022 – 3514.95.1.197 Taylor, S. E., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1995). Effects of mindset on positive illusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 (2), 213 -226. doi:10.1037/0022 -3514.69.2.213 Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M., & McDowell, N. K. (2003). Portrait of the self – enhancer: Well adjusted and well liked or maladjusted and friendless? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 84 (1), 165 -176. https ://doi.org/ 10.1037/0022 -3514.84.1.165 Thomsen, L., Sidanius, J., & Fiske, A. P. (2007). Interpersonal leveling, independence, and self – enhancement: A comparison between Denmark and the US, and a relational practice framework for cultural psychology. Europe an Journal of Social Psychology , 37 (3), 445 -469. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ejsp.366 Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and So cial Psychology , 54 (6), 1063 -1070. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0022 -3514.54.6.1063 PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 11 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Appendix A Positive and Negative Affect Schedules (PANAS) This scale consists of a number of words that describe different feelings and emotions. Read each item and then mark the appropriate answer in the space next to that word. Indicate to what extent you feel this way right now, that is, at the present moment. Use the following scale to record your answers. 1 2 3 4 5 very slightly or not at all a little moderately quite a bit extremely _____ interested _____ irritable _____ distressed _____ alert _____ excited _____ ashamed _____ upset _____ inspired _____ strong _____ nervous _____ guilty _____ determined _____ scared _____ attentive _____ hostile _____ jittery _____ enthusiastic _____ active _____ proud _____ afraid Source: Watson et al. (1988) PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 12 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Appendix B How I See Myself (HSM) For each of the qualities or skills below, we would like you to rate yourself in comparison to your peers. Specifically, we want you to think about how the average UWM college students of your age and gender rates on each of these qualities or skills, and then rate yourself in comparison. Please use the following scale to rate yourself: 1 = Much worse than the average college student of my age and gender 2 = Somewhat worse than the average college student of my age and gender 3 = Slightly worse than the average college student of my age and gender 4 = About the same than the average college student of my age and gender 5 = Slightly better than the average college student of my age and gender 6 = Somewhat better than the average college student of my age a nd gender 7 = Much better than the average college student of my age and gender Please read each item and fill in with the number that corresponds to your self -perception. _____ Cheerful _____ Anxious _____ Socially self -confident _____ Self -defeating _____ Moody _____ Original _____ Intellectually self -confident _____ Cranky _____ Creative _____ Understanding of others _____ Selfish _____ Manipulative _____ Academically able _____ Shy _____ Self -respecting _____ Sensitive to others _____ Impatient _____ Desire to achieve _____ Difficulty making friends _____ Lazy _____ Lacking motivation _____ Confident in ability to obtain personal goals Source: Taylor & Gollwitzer (1995) PSYC 3304 & 3104 , Proposal Abstract, Introduction, and Method Page 13 of 13 See the copyright statement in the course syllabus. Appendix C Demographic Questionnaire Below are a series of demographic questions. Please answer them as accurately as you can. Be assured that information provided is confidential. 1. Do you smoke? (If you smoke, please indicate how many cigarettes you smoke per day ) □ Yes: _____________ □ No 2. What is your age (years old)? ________ __ 3. Gender (please select one) : □ Male □ Female □ Other: __________ 4. Are you currently a student? □ Yes □ No 5. Year in college (please select one) : □ Freshman □ Sophomore □ Junior □ Senior □ Graduate Student □ Other: __________ □ Not Applicable 6. What is your ethnicity? □ White/ Cauc asian (non -Hispanic) □ Black/ African American □ Hispanic /Latino(a) □ Asian /Pacific Islanders □ Native American □ Biracial/Multiracial: ____________________________ □ Other: ____________________________
Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas.You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/pro
ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 1 The Relationships among Anxiety, Stress, and Smoking Status by XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX Research Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for PSYC 3304 and 3104 at The University of Texas Permian Basin June 22, 2021 ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 2 Abstract Stress and anxiety are both conditions experienced by many human beings. Depending on the degree to which these variables are prevalent, each, either separately or together, has the potential to greatly hinder an individual and limit the ability to function efficiently. Therefore, it is important for health research to determine potential causes or exacerbating variables that may contribute to an individual’s health. S moking status, for example, is a variable that has been shown to be related to both stress and anxiety . The purpose of the present study is to analyze the relationship between smoking status, anxiety , and stress. Data will be collected via online questionnaires through Qualt rics. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale -2 (DASS -21) will be used to measure participants stress and anxiety. Smoking status and demographic information will be gathered using the demographic questionnaire . Keywords: health, stress, anx iety, smoking status , correlation ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 3 The Relationship s among Anxiety, Stress, and Smoking Status Anxiety and stre ss are both hindering phenomena that occur frequently for many people in their day to day lives. Both anxiety and stress have been known to be associated w ith various ailments as well as general ability to function successfully . In order to fully understand the effects of stress and anx iety on performance and health, it is important to be aware of the factors that contribute to their occurrence. The present study aims to analyze the factor, smoking status, as it is related to both anxiety and stress in order to det ermine if any correlati ons exist among the three factors. Research has shown that smoking s tatus may be an indicator of stress levels . In a study con ducted by Cao et al. (2012), researchers analyzed the smoking status and perceived stress levels of a group of migrant workers in rural China. Their results concluded that the manifestation of perceived stress among the workers exhibited an excess likelihood to be smokers , relative to low stress counterparts . Additionally, p ast studies have also indicated that stress can occur in th e absence or reduction of smoking, if already a smoker . In a study conducted by Azagba and Sharaf (2012), findings concluded in their study on perceived stress associated with smoking bans at work that although the bans may not be the main determinant of perceived stress in the work environment, there is a positive correlation. Additionally , a study from Allen et al. (2015) analyzed the effects of nicotine withdrawal on stress; a strong positive correlation was observed. Previous research has indicated that anxiety is also significantly associated with smoki ng. In a study conducted by Farris et al. (2014) , the researchers concluded that anxiety sensitivity correlated positively with nicotine dependence as well as other health hindering factors such as alcohol use, perceived barriers to smoking cessation, and severity of problems faced while attempting to stop. Although there is an underlying directionality problem ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 4 in many of these findings, a study by Asbridge et al. (2013) pro vides some insight for the current rationale regarding smoking status as it relates to the variables . This study focused on non – smokers and the effects of second hand smoke. Analyses revealed that smoke exposure to non – smokers was associated with increased anxiety disorders as well as poor mental health and high stress. Therefore, although stress and anxiety hav e been shown to exist with the reduction of smoking, or in the absence of it, there is also indication of a causal nature in smoking as it is related to stress and anxiety, w hich is important for health research. Furthermore, i n the previously mentioned study con ducted by Cao et al. (2012) regarding stress and smoking, it should be noted that the researchers used two model s; life stress and work stress. Interestingly, finding s displayed that the likelihood of smoking was more significant with the life stress model as opposed to the wo rk stress model. A different study conducted by Carpenter et al. (2011 ) examined this phenomenon of life stress as it relates to anxiety. The res earch focused on gene environment interaction s which contributed to stress which , in turn, is correlated with anxiety outcomes, further evidence of the ongoing relationship among the three factors. The present study aims to examine the correlation between anxiety and stress as well as a correlation among smoking status and each of these factors. Utilizing an online questionnaire, the researcher relied on self -reported measures . The researcher hypothesizes that smokers are more likely to report being stress ed compared to nonsmokers. The researcher also hypothesizes that smokers are more likely to report having anxiety compared to non -smokers. Additionally, it is hypothesized that stress and anxiety correlate positively; as stress increases, anxiety tends to increase, as well. Method ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 5 Participants The researcher will recruit prospective participants online and send them an anonymous survey link. Data will be collected through Qualtrics. Measures Depression A nxiety Stress Scale. Anxiety and stress will be assessed using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS -21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995; Appendix A). The questionnaire consist s of 21 items that included factors related to stress and anxiety such as overreaction and nervousness (e.g.; “ I found it difficu lt to relax). Each item will be rated on a 0 – 3-point Likert -type scale that ranged from “did not apply” to “apply very much”. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient reported that DASS -21 used for this study has high reliability and validity: .81 for anxiety and .89 for stress (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Demographic questionnaire. For each participant, a demographic questionnaire (Appendix B) will be administered in order to collect basic demographic information such as smoking status, age, student status and year, gender, and ethnicity. Procedure The questionnaire utilized for this study was the DASS -21, one of the five online questionnaires in a la rger research study. The researcher will collect the data via Q ualtrics. Participants will take on average 10 to 15 min to complete the surveys. Data Analysis Pearson correlation will be conducted to examine the relationships between anxiety and stress. To examine the differences between smokers and non -smokers in their stress and anxiety levels, a one -way analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) will be conducted. ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 6 Referen ces Allen, S. S, Eberly, L. E., Grandits, G. A., Harrison, K., & Lawless, M. H. (2015). Perceived stress and smoking -related behaviors and symptomatology in male and female smokers . Addictive Behaviors , 51 , 80 -83. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.07.011 Asbridge, M., Ralph, K.., & Stewart, S. (2013). Private space second -hand smoke exposure and the mental health of non -smokers: a cross -sectional analysis of Canadian adults. Addictive Behaviors , 38 (3), 1679 -1686. https://doi.o rg/ 10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.10.008 Azagba, S. , & Sharaf, M. (2012). The association between workplace smoking bans and self – perceived, work -related stress among smoking workers. BMC Public Health , 12 , 123. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/1471 -2458 -12 -123 Cao, R., Cui, X., Rockett, I., & Yang, T. (2012). Work stress, life stress, and smoking among rural -urban migrant workers in China . BMC public health , 12 , 979. https://doi.org/ 10.1186/1471 – 2458 -12 -979 Carpenter, L. L., Nugent, N. R., Price, L., & Tyrka , A.R. (2011). Gene -environment interactions: early life stress and risk for depressive and anxiety disorders . Psychopharmacology , 214 , 175. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s00213 -010 -2151 -x Farris, S., Leventhal, A., Schmidt, N., & Zvolensky, M. (2014). Anxiety sensitivity mediates relations between emotional disorders and smoking. Psychology of addicted behaviors , 28 (3), 912 -920. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/a0037450 Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: compariso n of the depression anxiety stress scales (DAS -21) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behavior Research and Therapy, 33 (3), 335 -343. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/0005 -7967(94)00075 -U ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 7 Appendix A Depression Anxiety Stress Scale -21 (DASS -21) Please read each statement and circle a number 0, 1, 2 or 3 that indicates how much the statement apply to you in general. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any statement. The rating scale is as follows: 0 Did not apply to me at all 1 Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time 2 Applied to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of time 3 Applied to me very much, or most of the time 1. I found it hard to wind down 0 1 2 3 2. I was aware of dryness of my mouth 0 1 2 3 3. I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all 0 1 2 3 4. I experienced breathing difficulty (e.g., excessively rapid breathing, breathlessness in the absence of physical exertion) 0 1 2 3 5. I found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things 0 1 2 3 6. I tended to over -react to situations 0 1 2 3 7. I experienced trembling (e.g., in the hands) 0 1 2 3 8. I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy 0 1 2 3 9. I was worried about situations in which I might panic and make a fool of myself 0 1 2 3 10 . I felt that I had nothing to look forward to 0 1 2 3 ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 8 11 . I found myself getting agitated 0 1 2 3 12 . I found it difficult to relax 0 1 2 3 13 . I felt down -hearted and blue 0 1 2 3 14 . I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on with what I was doing 0 1 2 3 15 . I felt I was close to panic 0 1 2 3 16 . I was unable to become enthusiastic about anything 0 1 2 3 17 . I felt I wasn’t worth much as a person 0 1 2 3 18 . I felt that I was rather touc hy 0 1 2 3 19 . I was aware of the action of my heart in the absence of physical exertion (e.g., sense of heart rate increase, heart missing a beat) 0 1 2 3 20 . I felt scared without any good reason 0 1 2 3 21 . I felt that life was meaningless 0 1 2 3 Source: Lovibond & Lovibond (1995) ANXIETY, STRESS, AND SMOKING 9 Appendix B Demographic Questionnaire Below are a series of demographic questions. Please answer them as accurately as you can. Be assured that information provided is confidential. 1. Do you smoke? (If you smoke, please indicate how many cigarettes you smoke per day ) □Yes: _____________ □No 2. What is your age (years old)? __________ 3. Gender (please select one): □ Male □ Female □ Other: __________ 4. Are you currently a student? □ Yes □ No 5. Year in college (please select one): □ Freshman □ Sophomore □ Junior □ Senior □ Graduate Student □ Other: __________ □ Not Applicable 6. What is your ethnicity? □ White/Caucasian (non -Hispanic) □ Black/African American □Hispanic/Latino(a) □ Asian/Pacific Islanders □ Native American □ Biracial/Multiracial: ____________________________ □ Other: ____________________________
Carefully go over the instructions below and the sample proposals posted on Canvas.You can use the sample proposals and the examples posted in this document to guide you. However, write your study/pro
~ Pergamon 0005-7967(94)00075-1 BehaP. Res. Ther. Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 335-343, 1995 Copyright ¢~ 1995 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0005-7967/95 $9.50 + 0.00 THE STRUCTURE OF NEGATIVE EMOTIONAL STATES: COMPARISON OF THE DEPRESSION ANXIETY STRESS SCALES (DASS) WITH THE BECK DEPRESSION AND ANXIETY INVENTORIES P. F. LOVIBOND and S. H. LOVIBOND School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, N.S.W. 2052, Australia (Received 10 September 1993; accepted 22 September 1994) Summary–The psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) were evaluated in a normal sample of N = 717 who were also administered the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). The DASS was shown to possess satisfactory psychometric properties, and the factor structure was substantiated both by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In comparison to the BDI and BAI, the DASS scales showed greater separation in factor loadings. The DASS Anxiety scale correlated 0.81 with the BAI, and the DASS Depression scale correlated 0.74 with the BDI. Factor analyses suggested that the BDI differs from the DASS Depression scale primarily in that the BDI includes items such as weight loss, insomnia, somatic preoccupation and irritability, which fail to discriminate between depression and other affective states. The factor structure of the combined BDI and BAI items was virtually identical to that reported by Beck for a sample of diagnosed depressed and anxious patients, supporting the view that these clinical states are more severe expressions of the same states that may be discerned in normals. Implications of the results for the conceptualisation of depression, anxiety and tension/stress are considered, and the utility of the DASS scales in discriminating between these constructs is discussed. INTRODUCTION Historically, the relationship between the negative affective conditions of depression and anxiety has been of considerable theoretical and clinical interest (Akiskal, 1985; Clark, 1989; Clark & Watson, 1990; Dobson, 1985; Stavrakaki & Vargo, 1986; Watson, Clark & Carey, 1988). Conceptually, depression and anxiety are quite distinct, but the clinical overlap between the two conditions has long exercised both clinicians and researchers. The concept of stress poses additional problems in the study of negative affective conditions. In addition to precipitating episodes of anxiety and depression, stressful life events are often thought to lead to a characteristic stress response involving chronic arousal and impaired function (e.g. Selye, 1952). Considered as an affective or emotional state (e.g. Lazarus, 1993), the concept of a stress response has clear affinities with anxiety. Recently Gotlib and Cane (1989) emphasised the limitations of existing self-report scales for anxiety and depression, and Clark and Watson (1990) have summarised the evidence relating to the assessment of the two conditions. The essential findings are as follows: (a) Self-report anxiety and depression scales typically correlate between 0.40 and 0.70 across a wide range of patient and non-patient samples; (b) Anxiety scales frequently correlate as highly with depression scales as with other anxiety scales, and depression scales show equal lack of specificity; (c) Clinicians’ ratings of anxiety and depression duplicate the relationships found with self-report scales; and (d) Only about half the patients diagnosed as having a depressive or an anxiety disorder exhibit relatively pure syndromes of one type or the other. The two most ambitious research programs designed to differentiate anxiety and depression were conducted by Costelio and Comrey (1967) and Beck, Epstein, Brown and Steer (1988). Costello and Comrey began with a large pool of items derived for the most part from existing anxiety and depression scales. The items were administered to successive clinical samples, and iterative factor analyses were performed in the search for items that would define orthogonal factors of anxiety BRT 33/3–fj 335 336 P.F. Lovibond and S. H. Lovibond and depression. In the case of the Beck et al. research, a widely used depression scale, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), was already available (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock & Erbaugh, 1961; Beck, Rush, Shaw & Emery, 1979). The task was to develop an anxiety scale that would provide maximum discrimination from the BDI and other measures of depression. An initial pool of items was drawn from pre-existing scales, and was refined on the basis of factor analyses of the responses of a series of outpatient samples. The final 21-item anxiety scale (the Beck Anxiety Inventory; BAI) was found to correlate in the region of 0.50 with the BDI. It is of interest that the final form of the anxiety and depression scales of Costello and Comrey (1967) also correlated in the region of 0.50, despite the stated goal of the authors to derive orthogonal anxiety and depression factors. The present paper focuses on a third research program which aimed to develop self-report anxiety and depression scales that would (a) cover the full range of core symptoms of anxiety and depression, (b) meet high psychometric standards, and (c) provide maximum discrimination between the two scales. The research was carried out over the period 1979-1990 and data were obtained from 30 samples. During testing of the depression and anxiety scales, a new factor emerged from analysis of the non-discriminating anxiety and depression items, with the highest loading items referring to difficulty relaxing, nervous tension, irritability and agitation. Further items were tested to explore the limits of this factor, leading to the development of a new scale which was labelled ‘stress’ by virtue of perceived similarity of the items to the symptoms of tension or stress (cf. Selye, 1952, 1974). The resulting scales, now referred to as the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS), were first described by Lovibond (1983; see also Wilson, 1980, 1982). A detailed account of the scale development, normative data, and research applications is provided in the DASS manual (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1993), available from the authors. The DASS items are listed in Table 3. The DASS research strategy differed in several ways from both previous studies (Costello & Comrey, 1967) and subsequent studies (Beck et al., 1988). First, the scales were developed using a boot-strapping strategy in which factors were defined initially in terms of clinical consensus, but were refined empirically using a confirmatory factor analytic technique, multiple groups factor analysis (Harman, 1976). Items were added as well as deleted over successive samples in an iterative procedure which led to the emergence of the stress factor (cf. Tellegen, 1985, pp. 685-688). Second, because of the overlap and inconsistencies between existing anxiety and depression scales, and between the various diagnostic systems for anxiety and depression, no external criteria were used in the development of the DASS scales. In contrast, Beck et al. (1988) selected items in part on the basis of their relationship to DSM-III (American Psychiatric Association, 1980) diagnostic categories for anxiety and depression. Finally, the major development of the DASS scales was carried out with normal, non-clinical samples. Thus, the central aim underlying development of the DASS scales was to generate measures of general negative affective syndromes, guided by existing conceptions but ultimately determined on empirical grounds. The present study was designed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the DASS scales in an independent sample of normal Ss. In particular, it was considered important to assess the generality of the factor structure derived from multiple groups factor analysis by using conventional exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Inclusion of the Beck scales (BDI and BAI) provided an interesting comparison in that these scales were developed with a different research strategy but with similar aims to the DASS scales. Furthermore, the factor structure obtained for the Beck scales in the present normal sample could be compared with the factor structure reported by Beck et al. (1988) in a clinical sample, thus providing information about the degree of convergence between the emotional states experienced by normals and by depressed and anxious patients. METHOD Subjects The Ss were 717 (486 female and 231 male) first year psychology students at the University of New South Wales. The mean age was 21.0 years. Negative emotional states 337 .J Table 1. Means, standard deviations and alpha coefficients Table 2. Intercorrelations between the DASS scales, the BDI, and the for the DASS scales, the BDI, and the BAI BAI Mean SD Alpha DASS DASS Depression 7.19 6.54 0.91 Depression Anxiety Stress BDI BAI Anxiety 5.23 4.83 0.81 DASS anxiety 0.54 — Stress 10.54 6.94 0.89 DASS stress 0.56 0.65 — BDI 7.72 6.47 0.84 BDI 0.74 0.58 0.60 — BAI 9.15 7.41 0.88 BAi 0.54 0.81 0.64 0.59 — Measures The DASS (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1993) consists of 42 negative emotional symptoms (see Table 3). Ss rate the extent to which they have experienced each symptom over the past week, on a 4-point severity/frequency scale. Scores for the Depression, Anxiety and Stress scales are determined by summing the scores for the relevant 14 items. Internal consistencies (coefficient alpha) for each scale for the DASS normative sample were: Depression 0.91; Anxiety 0.84; Stress 0.90. The revised BDI (Beck & Steer, 1987) is a 21-item self-report questionnaire in which each item consists of four statements indicating different levels of severity of a particular symptom experienced over the past week. Scores for all 21 items are summed to yield a single depression score. The internal consistency of the BDI, based on a number of clinical samples, is 0.86 (Beck & Steer, 1987). The BAI (Beck & Steer, 1990) consists of 21 symptoms that are rated on a 4-point severity scale referring to experience of symptoms over the past week. Scores for the 21 items are summed to yield a single anxiety score. The internal consistency of the BAI over a number of samples has been found to be in the range 0.85 to 0.94 (Beck & Steer, 1990). Procedure The students completed the DASS, BAI and BDI, in that order, during tutorial classes. Ratings were made in pencil on answer sheets that were read by an optical scanner. The data were analysed by means of principal components and confirmatory factor analyses. A criterion of ~ = 0.05 was used in significance tests. RESULTS Descriptive statistics Means, standard deviations and alpha coefficients for the five scales are shown in Table 1. Inter-correlations between the scales are shown in Table 2. Initial analyses indicated a similar factor structure for males and females, so the factor analyses reported below are all based on the full sample. Principal components factor analysis The first approach used to test the factor structure of the DASS, which had been developed using multiple groups factor analysis, was a principal components analysis. Three factors were specified, in order to allow factors corresponding to the three scales to emerge, if supported by the data.* The first three factors together accounted for 41.3% of the item variance. Oblique rotation yielded three correlated factors that reproduced the three DASS scales, with one exception: Anxiety item 10 (“I feared that I would be ‘thrown’ by some trivial but unfamiliar task”) loaded more highly on the Stress factor than on the Anxiety factor. In general, most items received a moderate to high loading on their own factor and low loadings on the other two factors (see Table 3). The correlations between factors were: Depression-Anxiety r = 0.42; Anxiety-Stress r = 0.46; and Depression-Stress r = 0.39. *When two factors were specified, the anxiety and stress factors collapsed into one. When four factors were specified, the items describing impatience in the stress scale formed a separate factor, and when five factors were specified, the anxiety scale split into two factors, corrresponding to autonomic and subjective symptoms. 338 P.F. Lovibond and S. H. Lovibond For comparison purposes, a similar principal components analysis, with two factors specified, was carried out on the BDI and BAI items. The first two factors accounted for 22.5% and 6.6% of the variance. Rotation yielded two factors corresponding to Depression and Anxiety, with three exceptions: BAI items 5 (“Fear of the worst happening”) and 14 (“Fear of losing control”) loaded more highly on the Depression factor than on the Anxiety factor, and BDI item 19 (Loss of weight) loaded more highly on the Anxiety factor than on the Depression factor. The correlation between the two factors was r = 0.47. In comparison to the DASS analysis, there was a greater degree of overlap in the loadings of the Depression and Anxiety factors in the BDI/BAI analysis. Several BAI items loaded moderately on both factors. The BDI items did not tend to load strongly on the Anxiety factor, but several BDI items had low loadings on the Depression factor. The BDI items with loadings below 0.3 were item 19 (Weight loss: 0.0), item 21 (Loss of libido: 0.18), item 11 (Irritability: 0.27), item 18 (Loss of appetite: 0.27) and item 20 (Somatic preoccupation: 0.27). Confirmatory factor analysis The second approach to testing the DASS factor structure was confirmatory factor analysis, The statistical program Lisrel7 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1988) was used to test the adequacy of the allocation of items to the three DASS scales. The first model tested was a single factor model, which yielded a very large and significant chi-square value [Zz(819)= 5413, P <0.05], indicating a significant discrepancy between the model and the data. The adjusted goodness of fit index was 0.60. Next, a two-factor model was tested in order to assess the validity of the distinction between Depression and the other two DASS scales. This model yielded an improved fit [X2(818)= 3942, P < 0.05; adjusted goodness of fit---0.74], and differed significantly from the one-factor model [z2(l) = 1471, P < 0.05]. Finally, three factors were defined, corresponding to the three DASS scales. This model yielded a lower chi-square value again [X2(816)= 3559, P <0.05; adjusted goodness of fit = 0.76]. The phi coefficients, which assess the strength of the links between the three factors, were: Depression-Anxiety 0.61; Anxiety-Stress 0.76; Depression-Stress 0.62. The three-fac- tor model provided a significantly better fit than the two-factor model [Z2(2)= 383, P < 0.05]. These comparisons indicate that distinguishing between depression and the other two scales yields a large improvement in fit to the data, and that distinguishing between anxiety and stress yields a further moderate improvement in fit. In order to provide a reference point to evaluate the goodness of fit of the three-factor confirmatory model, a three-factor exploratory factor analysis was carried out using the same estimation method as the confirmatory analysis: maximum likelihood. This analysis also generated a large chi-square value [Xz(738)= 3025, P < 0.05]. This value represents the lowest possible chi-square that could be obtained for a three-factor solution, where all items are free to load on all factors. By comparison, therefore, the chi-square value of 3559 for the highly constrained three-factor confirmatory analysis is relatively low, particularly in comparison to the one-factor and two-factor values of 5413 and 3942, respectively. A final analysis addressed the issue of how much of the variance in the three scales is due to a common factor. A second-order factor analysis was carried out, in which a common factor was allowed to influence all three scales, but the three scales were not allowed to influence each other. This model generated an identical fit and identical item loadings to the three-factor confirmatory analysis described above [zz(816) = 3559, P < 0.05; adjusted goodness of fit = 0.76]. The gamma coefficients, which represent the strength of the links between the common factor and each of the scales, were: Depression 0.71; Anxiety 0.86; Stress 0.88. That is, the common factor accounted for 50.4% of the variance in Depression, 74.0% of the variance in Anxiety, and 77.4% of the variance in Stress. The larger values for Anxiety and Stress reflect the fact that these two scales are more highly correlated, and therefore dominated the definition of the common factor. DASS subscale analysis During development of the DASS, items in each scale were categorised into subscales of 2-6 items, on the basis of judgement of common content. In order to test the validity of the subscales, a second-order factor analysis model was tested using Lisrel. This model defined 16 lower-level factors corresponding to the subscales. Each lower-level factor was allowed to contribute to the relevant higher-order factor corresponding to the three scales, Depression, Anxiety and Stress. The Negative emotional states 339 Table 3. List of DASS items with factor Ioadings from 3-factor principal components analysis with oblique rotation SCALE Subscale Factor Ioadings Item I 2 3 DEPRESSION Dysphoria I felt downhearted and blue* 1 felt sad and depressed Hopelessness 1 could see nothing in the future to be hopeful about I felt that I had nothing to look forward to* Devaluation q[' I([b 1 felt that life was meaningless* 1 felt that life wasn't worthwhile SelJ:deprecation I felt I was pretty worthless I felt I wasn't worth much as a person* Lack of interest/involvement I felt that I had lost interest in just about everything I was unable to become enthusiastic about anything* Anhedonia I couldn't seem to experience any positive feeling at all* I couldn't seem to get any enjoyment out of the things I did Inertia I just couldn't seem to get going 1 found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things* ANXIETY Autonomic arousal 1 was aware of the action of my heart in the absence of physical exertion (e.g, sense of heart rate increase, heart missing a beat)* I perspired noticeably (e.g. hands sweaty) in the absence of high temperatures or physical exertion 1 was aware of dryness of my mouth* 1 experienced breathing difficulty (e.g. excessively rapid breathing, breathlessness in the absence of physical exertion)* I had difficulty in swallowing Skeletal musculature effects I had a feeling of shakiness (e.g. legs going to give way) I experienced trembling (e.g. in the hands)* Situational anxiety I was worried about situations in which I might panic and make a fool of myself* 1 found myself in situations which made me so anxious I was most relieved when they ended I feared that I would be "thrown" by some trivial but unfamiliar task Subjective experience of anxious affect I felt 1 was close to panic* I felt terrified I felt scared without any good reason* I had a feeling of faintness STRESS Difficulty relaxing I found it hard to wind down* I found it hard to calm down after something upset me I found it difficult to relax* Nervous arousal I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy* I was in a state of nervous tension Easily upset/agitated I found myself getting upset rather easily I found myself getting upset by quite trivial things I found myself getting agitated* Irritable/over-reactive 1 tended to over-react to situations* 1 found that I was very irritable 1 felt that I was rather touchy* Impa t ien t I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on with what I was doing* I found myself getting impatient when I was delayed in any way (e.g. lifts, traffic lights, being kept waiting) 1 found it difficult to tolerate interruptions to what I was doing 57 56 22 75 80 76 73 69 72 67 67 74 60 36 45 55 34 47 53 53 61 64 49 46 24 20 27 53 48 22 48 20 52 27 48 20 46 27 47 34 41 38 40 61 58 63 62 60 67 73 56 76 Note I: Decimal points and values less than 0.2 in factor Ioadings omitted for clarity. Note 2: The DASS scales are in the public domain. The above items are presented to Ss in random order, with a four-point scale for each item labelled "'Did not apply to me at all'" (0), "'Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time" (1), "'Applied to me a considerable degree, or a good part of the time (2), and "Applied to me very much, or most of the time" (3). Instructions at the top of the sheet read: "For each of the statements below, please circle the number which best indicates how much the statement applied to you OVER THE PAST WEEK. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any one statement." Scores for each scale are obtained by summing the scores for the 14 items in the scale. Note 3: Items which are included in the short (21-item) version are marked with an asterisk. The items were selected such that scale scores for the short version may be converted to full scale scores by multiplying by 2. Note 4: The DASS is a minor revision of an earlier version of the scales, the SAQ (Lovibond, 1983), which contained 14 Depression items, 12 Anxiety items and 16 Stress items. SAQ scores may be converted to DASS scores by multiplying the Anxiety score by 1.037 and the Stress score by 0.921. The Depression scales are identical. 340 P.F. Lovibond and S. H. Lovibond first attempt to test this model failed, as the Lisrel program could not generate a solution (psi matrix not positive definite). Examination of the standard errors suggested that Anxiety item 14 (faintness) was problematic. Reassignment of this item from the Autonomic to the Subjective subscale allowed a solution to be generated. This solution produced a better fit than the first-order models L~2(801) = 2399, P < 0.05; adjusted goodness of fit = 0.84]. No further adjustments were made to item assignment, due to the likelihood of sample-specific artefacts (MacCallum, Roznowski & Necowitz, 1992). The final allocation of items to subscales is listed in Table 3. Since this allocation was based primarily on logical considerations, it cannot be defended as an optimal solution, since other groupings may have yielded similar or superior fit to the data. However, the subscales provide a means of reducing the information contained in the 42 items, and may be useful for descriptive and research purposes. The relative contribution of each subscale to the three scales was examined to see whether the various types of symptoms tended to be associated with particular levels of severity. Mean subscale scores were calculated as a function the Inertia and Dysphoria subscales at low levels of Depression than the a full scale score of approximately of full scale score, for each scale. In the case of Depression, had the highest mean values and were also more responsive other subscales, which did not show substantial scores until 6. However, whereas the Dysphoria subscale continued to increase as the full scale Depression score increased, the Inertia subscale showed a slower rate of increase past a full scale score of 8. In the case of Anxiety, the Situational subscale had a higher mean than the other subscales, but all subscales discriminated across the full range of Anxiety scale scores. Finally, all of the Stress subscales showed similar means and discriminated across the full range of Stress scale scores. BDI and BAI factor analyses Two further factor analyses were carried out on the present data to replicate directly those reported by Beck et al. (1988),* which were based on a clinical sample of N = 160. Firstly, a four-factor principal factor analysis with orthogonal rotation was conducted on the 42 BDI and BAI items. The first three factors generated were virtually identical to those obtained by Beck: a depression factor, a somatic anxiety factor, and a subjective anxiety factor. The fourth factor was a somatic depression factor (e.g. loss of appetite, insomnia, somatic preoccupation), whereas in Beck's analysis this factor contained a mixture of BDI and BAI somatic items. The second replication analysis was an oblique two-factor principal factor analysis of the 21 BAI items. This analysis yielded a somatic factor (14 items) and a subjective factor (7 items), with identical item composition in each case to that reported by Beck et al. (1988). These results indicate that the factor structure of the BDI and BAI is essentially the same in a normal sample as in a clinical population with diagnosed depressive and anxiety disorders. DISCUSSION Psychometric data This study yielded means, standard deviations and intercorrelations for the DASS scales similar to those observed in previous samples (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1993), and confirmed the satisfactory reliability of the three scales. The factor structure of the DASS was confirmed with two different approaches. First, principal components factor analysis reproduced the three scales, with the exception of one Anxiety item that performed more weakly than in previous data sets. Second, confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the three scales provided a better fit to the data than either a one-factor or a two-factor solution, and yielded a chi-square value close to that of a completely unrestricted analysis. The analyses confirmed that while the DASS successfully discriminates between three negative emotional syndromes, these syndromes are still moderately highly correlated with each other, and in particular the Stress scale is more closely associated with Anxiety than with Depression. *We thank A. T. Beck for providing an earlier draft of this paper containing additional details of the analyses conducted. Negative emotional states 341 Relationship between the DASS, BDI and BAI The DASS Anxiety scale and the BAI were highly correlated (r =0.81), while the DASS Depression scale and the BDI were somewhat less strongly correlated (r = 0.74). However, both of these correlations were much higher than the corresponding cross-correlations of r = 0.58 and r = 0.54 (respectively, Z = 12.41 and Z = 9.25, P < 0.05), indicating a greater degree of convergent validity than is typically the case for self-report scales (Clark & Watson, 1990). The primary reason for the lower correlation between the DASS Depression scale and the BDI appears to be the inclusion in the BDI of several items which are not strongly or uniquely related to depression. In particular, weight loss, loss of libido, irritability, loss of appetite and somatic preoccupation received low loadings on the Depression factor in the analysis of the combined BDI and BAI items, replicating the analysis reported by Beck et al. (1988). This difference is also reflected in the lower alpha coefficient for the BDI (0.84) compared to the DASS Depression scale (0.91), despite the larger number of items in the BDI (21 versus 14). It is of interest that many of the BDI items with low factor loadings were among those that were tested during the development of the DASS, but had been rejected since they failed to discriminate between the Depression scale and the other two scales. These items included disturbance of appetite/weight loss, sleeping difficulties, tiredness for no reason, lack of energy, poor concen- tration, indecisiveness, agitation, guilt, lack of interest in sex, early awakening, feeling worst in the morning, mood changes during the day, crying, restlessness, and irritability. Some of these items were in fact more closely associated with the DASS Stress scale and form part of the final version of that scale. It should be noted that the first eight of the above symptoms are included among the criteria for diagnosis of major depression listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-III-R) of the American Psychiatric Association (1987). The implication of the present data, that several traditional depressive symptoms are only poorly associated with other components of the depressive syndrome, is of course a contentious one. In particular, clinicians have long regarded somatic symptoms as core features of depression. However, the present findings are supported by previous research on the discriminant validity of individual symptoms. In a review of studies of both clinician-rated and self-reported symptoms of depression ands anxiety, Clark (1989, Table 4.3) reported that four symptoms (loss of sexual interest, loss of appetite, overeating/weight gain, and increased sleep) were weak or inconsistent discriminators between patients diagnosed with depressive and anxiety disorders. Thus it would appear that current conceptions of depression, reflected both in popular self-report instruments such as the BDI and in formal diagnostic systems, may include symptoms that are poorly associated with the core depressive syndrome, or that are not unique to depression. By contrast, these symptoms were excluded from the DASS Depression scale during scale development, where discrimination between the three scales was a primary criterion for symptom inclusion. Further research is necessary with clinical samples to determine systematically which symptoms are best related to the overall diagnosis of depression, and which discriminate depression from other diagnoses such as anxiety disorders. Normal versus clinical emotional states In the present normal sample, the factor structure obtained from factor analysis of the BDI and BAI was highly similar to that reported by Beck et al. (1988) for these instruments on a clinical sample. Similarly, in the development of the DASS, not only the factor structure but also the relative performance of individual items was found to be virtually the same in clinical and non-clinical samples. Furthermore, in the present study, the subscale analysis indicated that the contribution of the various symptoms within each syndrome was relatively constant across severity. All of these findings strongly suggest that the depression, anxiety and tension/stress manifested by non-psychotic clinical outpatients and by normal non-clinical groups differ primarily in severity. This conclusion does not, of course, deny the possibility that specific clinical sub-categories may be distinguished within these general affective disturbances. However, the results do add to evidence suggesting that emotional disorders fall on a continuum with less extreme emotional disturbance (e.g. Farmer & McGuffin, 1989; Vredenburg, Flett & Krames, 1993). That is, clinical disorders may 342 P.F. Lovibond and S. H. Lovibond represent the severe, inappropriate or chronic manifestation of syndromes whose essential structure may be discerned in normal Ss. The nature and differentiation of depression, anxiety and stress The present study confirms that three syndromes, labelled depression, anxiety and stress, may be distinguished from self-report data by the DASS scales. Descriptively, the Depression scale is characterised principally by a loss of self-esteem and incentive, and is associated with a low perceived probability of attaining life goals of significance for the individual as a person. The coherence of these symptoms supports the view that the depressive syndrome is considerably broader than sadness of mood, although as discussed above, several symptoms traditionally regarded as part of this syndrome are not represented in the DASS Depression scale, since they do not appear to be specific to depression. The DASS Anxiety scale emphasises the links between the relatively enduring state of anxiety and the acute response of fear. It is of interest that the conventionally derived anxiety scale of Costello & Comrey (1967) does not share this feature. Indeed, the content of the Costello & Comrey anxiety scale is very narrow, and the scale appears to tap a dimension that might be termed 'nervousness'. By contrast, the BAI, which was constructed by a multi-stage procedure emphasising discrimination from depression at every stage, shares with the DASS Anxiety scale an emphasis on fear-related symptoms. Both scales give weight to somatic and subjective symptoms (cf. Morris, Davis & Hutchins, 1981), and the DASS Anxiety scale additionally addresses situational anxiety. The content of the Stress scale suggests that it is measuring a state of persistent arousal and tension with a low threshold for becoming upset or frustrated. The items that showed the greatest overlap in factor loadings with the Anxiety scale (see Table 3) were those involving nervous tension and nervous energy. This overlap suggests that there is a natural continuity between the syndromes assessed by the Anxiety and Stress scales, and that the point of division between the two may be somewhat arbitrary. Nonetheless, the analyses confirmed that the Stress scale as a whole contains a coherent set of symptoms that may be differentiated from depression and anxiety. The existence of such a syndrome has important implications for any attempt to provide a full analysis of negative emotional states. However, the present results do not comment on the appropriateness of labelling the scale as measuring 'stress'. Further research is clearly necessary to clarify the external validity of this scale, in particular its relationship to constructs in stress research such as life events, appraisal and coping (Coyne & Downey, 1991), and its discriminant validity from anxiety. A central theoretical question that arises in the present research is the basis of the measured association between depression, anxiety and tension/stress. Our findings concur with those of other investigators who have expended considerable effort in attempts to obtain the maximum meaning- ful discriminations between measures of anxiety and depression. Indeed, the findings of Costelio and Comrey (1967) and Beck et al. (1988), together with those of the present study, suggest that -t-0.50 may well be an irreducible minimum correlation between self-report scales designed to measure depression and anxiety. In the case of the DASS scales, no item was retained which loaded substantially (greater than 0.25) on the other scales. The absence of overlapping items is largely confirmed by the present data set. Nonetheless, the intercorrelations between the scales are still moderately high. It therefore may be argued that the associations between the DASS scales are not the result of the scales measuring overlapping constructs. Rather, these correlations may reflect common causes of anxiety, depression and stress (cf. the correlation between height and weight). There would seem to be two possible types of common cause of negative affective states: a common vulnerability factor which influences all three states, such as neuroticism (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1964) or negative affectivity (Watson & Clark, 1984), and common environmental activation. We are currently engaged in research aimed at identifying the common and specific factors, both trait and environmental, that underlie the states of depression, anxiety and stress. In summary, the present research provides support for the psychometric properties of the DASS scales and their convergent and discriminant validity with other instruments developed on clinical populations. The DASS scales not only provide measures of anxiety and depression that have been specifically designed to maximise internal consistency and differentiation, but both of these scales are further differentiated from the related state of tension/stress. The capacity to separately measure these three related states may be of considerable use for researchers dealing with the complex links Negative emotional states 343 between environmental demands and emotional and physical disturbance. The scales may also be useful to the clinician in clarifying the locus of emotional disturbance, as part of the broader task of clinical assessment (cf. Kendall, Hollon, Beck, Hammen & Ingram, 1987). Acknowledgements--This research was supported by Australian Research Council grants A28316103, A78831924 and A79131809. REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd edn). Author: Washington, D.C. American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd edm rev). Author: Washington, D.C. Akiskal, H. S. (1985). Anxiety: Definition, relationship to depression and proposal for an integrative model. In Tuma, A. H. & Maser, J. D. (Eds), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, N. J. Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G. & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 893-897. Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F. & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. Guilford Press: New York. Beck, A. T. & Steer, R. A. (1987). Manual for the revised Beck Depression Inventory. The Psychological Corporation: San Antonio, Tex. Beck, A. T. & Steer, R. A. (1990). Manual for the Beck Anxiety Inventory. The Psychological Corporation: San Antonio, Tex. Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J. & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571. Clark, L. A. (1989). The anxiety and depressive disorders: Descriptive psychopathology and differential diagnosis. In Kendall, P. C. & Watson, D. (Eds), Anxiety and Depression: Distinctive and overlapping features. Academic Press: San Diego, Calif. Clark, L. A. & Watson, D. (1990). Theoretical and empirical issues in differentiating depression from anxiety. In Becker, J. & Kleinman, A. (Eds), Advances in mood disorders, Vol. 1. Psychosocial aspects of depression. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, N.J. Costello, C. G. & Comrey, A. L. (1967). Scales for measuring anxiety and depression. Journal of Psychology, 66, 303 313. Coyne, J. C. & Downey, G. (1991). Social factors and psychopathology: Stress, social support, and coping processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 401-425. Dobson, J. S. (1985). The relationship between anxiety and depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 5, 307-324. Eysenck, H. J. & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1964). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Inventor),. University of London Press: London. Farmer, A. & McGuffin, P. (1989). The classification of the depressions: Contemporary confusion revisited. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 437-443. Gotlib, 1. H. & Cane, D. B. (1989). In Kendall, P. C. & Watson, D. (Eds), Anxiety and depression; Distinctive and oterlapping features. Academic Press: San Diego. Harman, H. H. (1976). Modern .factor analysis. Chicago University Press: Chicago. Joreskog, K. G. & Sorbom, D. G. (1988). LISREL 7: A guide to the program and applications. SPSS: Chicago. Kendall, P. C., Hollon, S. D., Beck, A. T., Hammen, C. L. & Ingram, R. E. (1987). Issues and recommendations regarding use of the Beck Depression Inventory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 289-299. Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: A history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 1-21. Lovibond, S. H. (1983). The nature and measurement of anxiety, stress and depression. Paper presented at the 18th Annual Conference of the Australian Psychological Society, University of Western Australia, May. Lovibond, S. H. & Lovibond, P. F. (1993). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS). Psychology Foundation Monograph. (Available from The Psychology Foundation, Room 1005 Mathews Building, University of New South Wales, NSW 2052, Australia). MacCallum, R. C., Roznowski, M. & Necowitz, L. B. (1992). Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: The problem of capitalization on chance. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 490-504. Morris, L. W., Davis, M. A. & Hutchins, C. H. (1981). Cognitive and emotional components of anxiety: Literature review and a revised worry-emotionality scale. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 541-555. Selye, H. (1952). The story of the adaptational syndrome. Acta Inc.: Montreal. Selye, H. (1974). Stress without distress. Lippincott: New York. Stavrakaki, C. & Vargo, B. (1986). The relationship of anxiety and depression: A review of the literature. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 7-16. Tellegen, A. (1985). Structures of mood and personality and their relevance to assessing anxiety, with an emphasis on self-report. In Tuma, A. H. & Maser, J. (Eds), Anxiety and the Anxiety Disorders (pp. 681-706). Erlbaum: Hillsdale, N.J. Vredenburg, K., Flett, G. L. & Krames, L. (1993). Analogue versus clinical depression: A critical reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 327-344. Watson, D. & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative Affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465-490. Watson, D., Clark, L. A. & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 346-353. Wilson, P. H. (1980). Behavioural and pharmacological treatment of depression (Doctoral dissertation, University of New South Wales, Australia). Dissertation Abstracts International 41, 4063. Wilson, P. H. (1982). Combined pharmacological and behavioural treatment of depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 20, 173-184.
Why Choose Us
- 100% non-plagiarized Papers
- 24/7 /365 Service Available
- Affordable Prices
- Any Paper, Urgency, and Subject
- Will complete your papers in 6 hours
- On-time Delivery
- Money-back and Privacy guarantees
- Unlimited Amendments upon request
- Satisfaction guarantee
How it Works
- Click on the “Place Order” tab at the top menu or “Order Now” icon at the bottom and a new page will appear with an order form to be filled.
- Fill in your paper’s requirements in the "PAPER DETAILS" section.
- Fill in your paper’s academic level, deadline, and the required number of pages from the drop-down menus.
- Click “CREATE ACCOUNT & SIGN IN” to enter your registration details and get an account with us for record-keeping and then, click on “PROCEED TO CHECKOUT” at the bottom of the page.
- From there, the payment sections will show, follow the guided payment process and your order will be available for our writing team to work on it.