As always, be sure to include paraphrased citations from the required readings, lectures, and videos.(article) “Racial, gender wage gaps persist in U.S. despite some progress”- https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/07/01/r… Ted Talk “how to make work-life balance work” – https://www.ted.com/talks/nigel_marsh_how_to_make_…There’s More to the Shrinking Pay Gap VideoWe have made it to our final week of group discussions! This week we
are studying both workplace diversity and work/life balance. I often
find the term “work/life balance” to be peculiar, since working is part of anyone’s life who is employed. Some of us even spend more time with our co-workers than we do with other people in our lives! Thinking about this week’s materials, let’s discuss how we balance
our working lives with the rest of our time. Here are some questions to
ponder this week. (You do not need to answer all of these questions;
they are just to get you thinking about the topic.)1. How do your roles and intersections of such characteristics as race,
gender, class, and the like play into your own balancing act? Use
examples from your life or the experiences of others you know to discuss
the concepts from Volti, the inequalities and diversity lecture, and
the TED Talks this week.2. Overwork, lack of paid vacation time, and inequalities in the
workplace are just a few issues in the U.S. workplace. Thinking about
those or other issues, how might we go about making positive changes for
workers? How might things need to change in the future?3. Discuss your ideas on workplace diversity and opportunities for change to the workplace structure.Chapter 13
Diversity in the Workplace
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Race, Ethnicity and Hiring
Historically, ascribed characteristics
prominent in hiring
Racial and ethnic discrimination
One early example “Irish need not apply”
Apprenticeships largely limited to white males
Not so overt anymore, but influence persists
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Barriers to Integration
Minorities lack incorporation into job networks
Location
Minority groups often concentrated in urban
centers
Economic bases have been “hollowed out”
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Barriers to Integration (continued)
Deindustrialization
Inner-city enterprises diminishing
Many firms have simply gone out of business
Jobs gone abroad
Neighborhood relocation from “undesirable” areas
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Barriers to Integration (continued)
Spatial Mismatches
Minorities reside in certain areas; jobs in
another (e.g., Suburbs)
Transportation difficult
Lack of access to suburban social networks
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Barriers to Integration (continued)
Unemployment percentages (2008)
Whites: women 8.5, men 10.3
African Americans: women 13.2, men 19.9
Latinos: women 11.9, men 12.9
Asian Americans: women 7.3, men 6.6
Even well-qualified minority workers may be
subject to prejudice
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Prejudice and Discrimination
Few employers exhibit blatant discrimination
Unintentional mechanisms:
Educational requirements
The intersection of hiring and education
Skill requirements
“Hard” versus “Soft” skills
Emphasis on the latter problematic for some
minorities
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Prejudice and Discrimination
(continued)
Employers not the only ones who have
discriminated
For example: Labor Unions
Against African American
The “Yellow Peril” among Chinese workers
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Prejudice and Discrimination
(continued)
Discrimination without personal prejudice
White clientele may not accept minority
workers
“Reverse discrimination”
Reluctant to hire whites for “minority jobs”
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Women in the Workforce
Women have entered the labor force in large
numbers in recent decades
This largely due to white women entering
African American women have historically
worked in large numbers
But jobs held differ substantially from men
Over-representation among secretaries, nurses
and cashiers
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Gender-based Occupational
Segregation
One explanation: gender segregation grounded
in biology
Here, men and women’s jobs reflect innate skills
and abilities
As a result, women work as teachers; men as
mechanics
The notion that women are “homemakers” first
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Gender-based Occupational
Segregation (continued)
Segregation grounded in motivations and
actions of women
Child care and family emphasizeded
Women self-select into jobs allowing
flexibility
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Gender-based Occupational
Segregation (continued)
Related approach: Human Capital
Women said to be unwilling to invest in
education and training
Primary commitments to family
Employers unwilling to hire for the same
reason
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Gender-based Occupational
Segregation (continued)
Segregation grounded in social
psychology
Boys and girls socialized differently
Thus leading to the development of
different skills and abilities
As adults, they gravitate towards different
jobs given their history
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Limitations of the Above
Explanations
Biological explanations:
Division of labor historical (e.g., HunterGatherers)
But new jobs are 80% service-based and
“masculine” virtues matter less
Balancing work and family:
“Women’s” jobs more accommodating
But single women as likely to hold them
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Limitations of the Above
Explanations (continued)
Human capital:
More difficult to assess
Helps explain lack of representation at the top, but
not simply due to insufficient human capital
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Limitations of the Above
Explanations (continued)
Socialization experiences:
Again, assessment difficult
Occupational changes from the 1960s onward
despite women having been socialized in the
1950s
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Discrimination, Segregation and
Pay
Substantial differences in remuneration tied to
race, ethnicity and gender
Several notable reasons:
Historically higher unemployment for minority
groups
Less seniority of minority members
Ineffectiveness and hostility surrounding
Affirmative Action
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Discrimination, Segregation and
Pay (continued)
Gender-based differentials also evident
Women make $.80 for each dollar earned by men
(2008)
Find both discrimination and exclusion
Reasons for lower pay for women:
Work less hours per year on average
Education and job experience
Gender discrimination
Gender-based occupational segregation
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Discrimination, Segregation and
Pay (continued)
Effects of supply and demand for “women’s
jobs”:
Supply is large; demand is low
Devaluation of women’s work
Continuity of careers
Women have more breaks in career trajectories
Child bearing, raising children come at a critical
point
Motherhood entails more for women, even though
they stay at work
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Intersection of Race and Gender
African American and Latino women earn
less than white women
But having a college degree reverses this
African American women with college degrees
earn slightly more than white women with
degrees
Longer careers
Also, perhaps less discrimination than faced by
black men
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Summing Up
Women earn on average less than men
Over the long term, the male-female earnings
gap has narrowed
Men’s wages declined; women’s wages did not
increase substantially
For college-educated women, news is mixed:
Have seen improved pay
But the male-female gap has increased
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Getting Ahead
Primary mechanism for getting ahead is
promotion
Seniority or merit?
Promotion on seniority unambiguous
Often dictates wages, salaries and shifts
Often in labor contracts
Helps to prevent prejudiced decisions
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Getting Ahead (continued)
Promotion by merit appeals to a sense of
fairness
Used by employers for motivation
But is often ambiguous:
How does one define merit?
May occupations have multiple work tasks and
components
Most jobs are collective in nature
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Problems for Women and
Minorities
Seniority rewards stable employment to the
advantage of white men
Pitfalls of merit:
Always a subjective element
Cooperation is key, but problematic
Kanter (1977)
“Homosocial Reproduction”
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Legal Remedies
Until the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964,
restraints to racial, ethnic, and gender
discrimination were confined to state and local
laws.
Enactment and enforcement did not transform
the workplace
One remedy: Affirmative Action
Justification – past discrimination has produced
serious inequalities that need specific policies to
address
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Interpreting Affirmative Action
Difficulties emerge in policy
One approach to affirmative action:
Create fairer chances in applying for
educational opportunities and jobs
Another approach to affirmative action
Widening access to education and jobs will not
solve the problem
A call for quotas
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Interpreting Affirmative Action
(continued)
A third approach to affirmative action
Widening the applicant pool will not substantially
change hiring practices
But targeted educational and training programs
will improve prospects for minorities
The history of inequalities based on race,
ethnicity, and gender is a long one, and is
unlikely to be remedied in a short time.
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Comparable Worth Policies
“Comparable Worth” suggests gender
segregation should not result in unequal pay
Jobs may be male or female-dominated
But fundamentally similar
Training
Job-related experience
Mental, physical stress
Workplace responsibilities
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Comparable Worth Policies
(continued)
State and local level proposals suggested
But overall have gained little traction
Nationally, political and economic barriers
persist
Politically, it stands in opposition to a “freemarket” wage system
But it is clear that markets are not the sole
determinant of wages and salaries
Selection of criteria for job evaluation
contentious
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Chapter 14
Work Roles and Life Roles
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Separation of Work and
Residence
Commuting now a way of life
Historically, a new phenomenon
Hunter-gatherers lived where food was available
Agriculture linked work and residence
Urbanization/industrialization had little impact at
first
Cities were dense and compact, workers were
within walking distance of their jobs
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Separation of Work and
Residence
Commuting longer distances not possible until
the latter 19th century
Initially, “public transit” meant horse-drawn
buses and streetcars
Trolleys, subways, and elevated railroads
allowed longer commuting distances
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Separation of Work and
Residence
In the 1920s, the automobile became the vehicle of
choice
Since then, work and residence continue to
separate
But commuting time is significant
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Working Hours
Time spent at our jobs has becime a significant
issue
Many feel the pressure of a “time bind”
Pressures from competing sources
Increase in time spent at work a reversal of
historical trend
A future with more leisure time was expected in
the 1950s.
Idleness the concern; not overwork
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Working Hours
The “Overworked American” (Schor)
The average number of hours grew from the
1970s onward
Most attributed to managerial motivations and
actions
Growing numbers of salaried workers meant
that remuneration did not do up with the
number of hours worked
Health insurance and pensions based on the
number of employees, not the number of hours
that they worked
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Working Hours
Employees accepted and even embraced a culture
of over-work
Unions and industries lost interest in reducing
hours
May have reflected economic realities
Compensation stagnated
Material desires increased
“Cycle of work and spend” (Schor)
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Working Hours
Disagreement as to how many hours people are
spending on the job
Bottom line: effective measurement
How measurements are made
What is measured
Whose work is measured
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
How Measurement is Taken
Measurement taken from 2 sources:
Current Population Survey (CPS)
Random sample of 60,000
Time Diaries
Survey Research Center, Universities of
Michigan and Maryland
Convergence:
Divergence appears as random errors
All things considered, both sets appear to agree
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
What and Who is Measured
Contradictory results have emerged from failure
to distinguish annual versus weekly hours worked
Estimates speak to the “average” American
worker
Only a statistical entity
Necessary to distinguish categories of workers
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
The Role of Gender
Men and women exhibit significant differences:
Women work fewer hours on average
But hours have been moving upward, whereas
men’s hours remain stable
Women’s participation has become less episodic
Here, overall increases due to increased hours
worked by women
Not sheer number of hours put in by all workers
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Segmenting the Labor Force
Age differences:
Those aged 25-55 put in the most hours
Kind of work:
Mangers, sales and professionals have longer
hours
Skilled blue collar workers with fewer hours
Education:
More education leads to more hours
In part due to demanding jobs
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Work Hours
US workers put in more hours annually than
workers other industrialized countries:
Japan, European nations
Vacation days:
Italians = 42
French = 37
Germans = 32
Americans = 13
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Work Hours
In the US, time away from the workplace does not
mean time away from work
Many workers take work home with them
Made possible by modern communications
technologies
Internet
Email
Being at work does not necessarily mean being
productive
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Women at Work
Women have historically worked
Initially largely confined to the home
Textile industries began to employ young women
in the 18th and 19th centuries
Married women worked in the least industrialized
sectors
Expansion of clerical work and teaching changed
this pattern
Women worked prior to marriage
Or once children were self-sufficient
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Women at Work
Both world wars significantly increased women’s
employment opportunities
Cessation of hostilities produced short-term
drops
Other factors affecting women’s workforce
participation:
End of the baby boom
Rise of the service sector
Rise of a “consumer society”
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
The Second Shift
For many women, working for pay means they
hold 2 jobs
A job for a wage
Domestic work at home
The hours of women’s domestic duties stable for
much of the 20th century
Changed somewhat in recent years
Employed women spending 2/3 the time at
home as women not in the labor force
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
The Second Shift
The ratio of housework shifting towards women
Men have increased contributions
But mostly women doing less
A clear gender division of housework
Women: cooking, cleaning, child care
Men: home repairs, yard work, auto
maintenance
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
The Second Shift
Technology has both helped and hindered
Appliances have elevated expectations
Meals expected to be appetizing and
healthful
Clothes need always be clean
More driving time
Also shifted responsibility for some household
tasks away from men
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Couples, Careers and Families
In a majority of US households, men and women
hold paying jobs
The number of hours worker per couple has
increased
1975 – 52.5 hours per week
2000 – 63.1 hours per week
The number of couples putting in longer hours
has increased
Especially among the childless
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Couples, Families and Careers
Dual-earner families enjoy higher incomes along
with other benefits, such as Socializing in the
workplace
Along with benefits come stresses
Wives devote more time to housework and
child care
Men continue to work long hours, even in
families with large numbers of children
Long hours not easily reconciled with family
responsibilities
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Couples, Families and Careers
Careers often proceed in stages and are more
demanding than ordinary jobs
Hence, potentially more stress
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Couples, Families and Careers
Careers may require frequent moves, which create
certain problems
Leaving established networks
Problems of the “trailing spouse”
Abandoning a present position and finding
another
Male-female differences
Women less likely to move
Men’s careers often valued more than those
of women
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Couples, Families and Careers
Some couples maintain 2 residences
May be necessary if both spouses are pursuing
careers
Long distance marriages inherently difficult
Some careers call for spouses to remain together
“Two-person” careers
Example: wives of executives
Much less common today
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Reconciling Work and Life Roles
“Balance” suggests an equilibrium
Not a likely situation for work and family
Specific policies would allow an easier
reconciliation of work and family roles.
Reducing hours at work
In the first half of the 19th century, some trades
successful
8-hour work day
Limitations for women and children
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Reconciling Work and Life Roles
Fair Labor Standards Act, 1938
Federal backing of the 8-hour day
In years following, paid vacations emerged
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Reconciling Work and Life Roles
Long term reduction gave workers added time, but
this trend has stalled in recent years
Child care time among women has remained
stable
Likely to be a major source of stress for full-time
women workers
On-site child care only offered by a few
employers
But about half offer some assistance
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Flexible Work Scheduling
No way to expand the number of hours per day,
but demands can be made manageable
Flexibility in scheduling
May be preferred to fewer hours, but rigid
scheduling
Fixed scheduling problematic as it does not match
other demands
School schedules
Child illnesses
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Flexible Work Scheduling
One solution: part-time work arrangements
May not be economically feasible
May retard careers
Another possibility: shift work
Example: the “graveyard shift” (11 PM to 7 AM)
Allowing 10 hours over 4 days
Despite drawbacks, these strategies are popular
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Flexible Work Scheduling
Flexible arrangements not evenly distributed
Women at the high end have less workplace
flexibility than men
Appears greatest for those who work both
longer and shorter weeks on average
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Flexible Work Scheduling
Flexible work arrangements can alleviate stress
Positively enhance job satisfaction
Increased commitment and desire to remain
employed
Improved morale may lead to greater
productivity
Parents may still miss critical family episodes
Birth or adoption
Full-time child rearing for extended periods
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Work and Parenting
Parents get no direct financial support from the
federal government
Tax deductions are often significant
Some states cover maternity leave as part of
disability insurance
1978 Pregnancy Discrimination Act
Illegal to fire or not hire women on the basis of
pregnancy
1993 Medical Leave Act
Easier to attend to parental obligations
But only among firms with 50 or more employees
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
Work and Parenting
Given the restrictions, many parents stay on the job
after the birth of adoption of a child
Only about 50% take leave
Mostly women, but men may also take leave time
Reflects traditional gender roles
Reflect gender-based wage gap
Some workers covered by employer’s leave
programs
But most likely found among well-paid, skilled
employees
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2012
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